Kongsfjorden

Kongsfjorden (fig. 1b) at 79˚n is the northernmost of the three fjords. it is about 25km long and 5–10 km wide. Sporadic information on fast-ice extent before the mid-1990s exists from biological Studies (Reference Lydersen and GjertzLydersen and gjertz, 1986; Reference MehlumMehlum, 1991; Reference Parker and MehlumParker and Reference MehlumMehlum, 1991). Some details about the fast-ice evolution in kongsfjorden are known from investigations Since 1997 (Reference Gerland, Winther, Ørbæk and IvanovGerland and others, 1999, Reference Gerland, Haas, Nicolaus and Winther2004; Reference Nicolaus, Haas and BareissNicolaus and others, 2003). according to observations Since 1997, fast ice forms in winter, relatively late, between december and february. the fast ice is heavily influenced by a group of islands (lovenøyane) that mark the border between the central and inner parts of the fjord. they protect and hold the fast ice in place, Sheltering the ice from Swell and waves, and in Spring the fast-ice edge often follows these islands. melt onset Starts around the beginning of june, but warm Spells with temperatures above 0˚c are not unusual during winter and Spring before melt onset. a review of the physical environment, including the hydrography of kongsfjorden, is given in Svendsen and others (2002). kongsfjorden is hydrographically connected by the kongsfjordenrenna to the north atlantic, and receives warm atlantic water masses from the west Spitsbergen current (Reference Ingvaldsen, Reitan, Svendsen and AsplinIngvaldsen and others, 2001; Reference Cottier, Tverberg, Inall, Svendsen, Nilsen and GriffithsCottier and others, 2005), which we See as the main factor for the late onset of ice formation. atlantic water enters kongsfjorden along the Southern coast and mixes with meltwater and runoff water in the inner part, before it exits the fjord on the northern edge. a few radionuclide tracer measurements (⁹⁹tc) on Samples from Surface water indicate that the atlantic water also reaches the inner parts of kongsfjorden (Reference Gerland, Lind, Dowdall, Karcher and KolstadGerland and others, 2003). the wide mouth of the fjord, with krossfjorden in the north, enables ocean Swell from Storms to reach the central part of the fjord, which can break up the fast ice. under-ice water-current velocities were observed to be relatively low at Site kf4, with means of 0.027 ms^–1 measured at 1.5 m below the Surface in april 2003 and 0.015 ms^–1 measured in june 2003 (k. widell and f. nilsen, unpublished information).

Van Mijenfjorden

Located at 77˚450 n, van mijenfjorden (fig. 1c) is longer and narrower than kongsfjorden. it is 50km long and 5–14 km wide. in addition, a long island (akseløya) almost closes the mouth of the fjord. this both protects the fast ice in the fjord from Swell and prevents the ice from drifting away when first broken up. nevertheless, warm atlantic water reaches the fjord and circulates anticlockwise in the fjord. the main water exchange occurs north of akseløya, but the atlantic water flow continues first Southwards after entering the fjord. after that it follows the Southern Shore of the fjord eastwards. two Sites were investigated in connection with this Study (fig. 1c): a northern Site (vmn), located far enough in the fjord not to be directly influenced by the inflowing atlantic water, and a Southern Site (vms), more exposed to the atlantic water. at vms, water-current velocities were high (mean 0.14ms^–1 at 10 m depth), compared with vmn and with northern kongsfjorden (personal communication from k. widell and f. nilsen, 2005). correspondingly, ablation at the Sea-ice underside is higher during melt periods at the Southern than at the northern Site.

Hornsund

Hornsund (fig. 1d; length 15 km, width 1–3 km) is the Southernmost of the investigated fjords, located at 77˚ n. annual means of air temperature recorded at the polish research Station hornsund during recent decades (1978–97) are Systematically higher than temperatures from longyearbyen (78˚14' n, 15˚30' e), which is located in isfjorden (see Reference Glowacki, Niedzwiedz and GlowackiGlowacki and niedzwiedz, 1997). for ice formation, more important winter means (november–march) from hornsund were about 2˚c higher than longyearbyen data, whereas Summer means (june–august) were about 1˚c lower. the hydrography of hornsund has Some Similarities with observations from kongsfjorden after investigations in the 1980s (Reference SvendsenWeslawski and others, 1991). however, those observations were obtained during the ice-free Season in Summer. as with kongsfjorden, hornsund fast ice is exposed to Swell coming in from the west. only the inner part is more protected, due to a 1 km narrow Sound.

Thickness drilling

For direct thickness measurements, holes were drilled through the ice with an engine-driven 5cm auger (kovacs enterprises, USA). for long-term monitoring measurements at kongsfjorden, three holes each in the three corners of a triangle with 10m long edges were drilled to obtain an average thickness. ice thickness, Snow thickness and freeboard were measured using a tape-measure thickness gauge (kovacs enterprises, USA) with an accuracy to the nearest centimetre. when drilling for calibration of electromagnetic (em) measurements, Sites were Selected along profiles, and one hole was drilled per Site. repeated drillings for the longterm monitoring over level fast ice at kongsfjorden were carried out approximately every 2 weeks in the Same area on each Site (circle radius 40 m), while ensuring undisturbed ice was measured.

Electromagnetic profiling

Em induction is employed to measure the total thickness (snow plus ice thickness). Since the late 1980s, this method has been applied over a variety of Sea-ice regimes, multi-year Sea ice (Reference Haas, Gerland, Eicken and MillerHaas and others, 1997; haas, Reference Haas1998, Reference Haas2004), first-year ice (Reference Kovacs and MoreyKovacs and morey, 1991; Reference Gerland, Winther, Ørbæk and IvanovGerland and others, 1999, Reference Gerland, Haas, Nicolaus and Winther2004) and both (Reference HaasHaas, 1998; Reference HaasHaas and eicken, 2001), either with an instrument carried, pulled or placed over or on the ice, or Shipborne hanging from the bow or Side of a Ship (Reference HaasHaas, 1998; Reference Reid, Worby, Vrbancich and MunroReid and others, 2003), or airborne, from a helicopter (Reference Kovacs and MoreyKovacs and others, 1987). the measurements presented here were collected carrying a portable em instrument (geonics em31, geonics ltd, mississauga, canada) over the ice, placing it on the ice at intervals of 5 m along a profile and taking the conductivity reading. Snow thickness was measured in parallel with a Stake for a part of the profiles.

The em31 is a Single-frequency (9.8 khz) instrument with a receiving and transmitting coil (separation 3.66 m). the transmitting coil generates a primary field, inducing eddy currents within the conductive Subsurface. the resulting Secondary em field is measured, through compensation of the primary field, by the receiving coil. over Sea ice, the Secondary field is mainly induced in the highly conductive Sea water. the Strength of the Secondary field is directly related to the distance between instrument and Sea water. the accuracy of the method is about 10% over level Sea ice (Reference Haas, Gerland, Eicken and MillerHaas and others, 1997). the conductivity readings are mainly dependent on the distance to the Sea water, but they are also influenced by the conductivity of the Sea ice and Sea water, by possible water layers at the ice–snow interface and by the air temperature Since the air temperature might affect the properties of the transmitting and receiving coils of the instrument. in order to consider most of the possible factors contributing to the transfer function of the em conductivities measured relative to ice thickness, a calibration with direct thickness measurements from drillholes was applied for all fjords investigated. Since conditions can vary Significantly

On different days and at different fjord locations, calibration drillings were done for all three fjords, and also for different Sites if they Seemed to be very different or if they were distant or if conditions changed. calibrating the instrument for Svalbard fjord ice is more difficult than for multi-year ice, because the range of thicknesses over level fjord ice at any location is quite narrow. the numbers of drillings are listed in table 1 along with all profiles and their lengths. calibration functions calculated for the individual Settings were found using a logarithmic function, following the method outlined in Reference Haas, Gerland, Eicken and MillerHaas and others (1997):

Table 1.

Overview on ground EM measurements on fast ice in Spring 2004. S Stands for South, N for north

With z _i as the total thickness (ice plus Snow), σ as the measured electrical conductivity reading, and c ₁–c ₃ as calibration constants, which were determined with the help of parallel em and direct measurements in drillholes.

In total, Seven different functions were calculated for the processing of the data for this paper. changes of air temperatures during fieldwork at hornsund and van mijenfjorden required adjusted calibrations within the Same campaigns. for the van mijenfjorden work in june, the different ice properties at the northern and Southern location were accounted for in different functions. at the northern location in van mijenfjorden, we observed that a water layer at the ice–snow interface (7 june) appeared to be frozen on 12 june. em readings were Significantly lower, and an updated calibration function was used.

2004 Survey

The fjords kongsfjorden (inner part) and van mijenfjorden (western part) on the western coast of Spitsbergen were Surveyed in march 2004. van mijenfjorden was also Surveyed in june, with the norwegian coastguard vessel kv Svalbard employed as a research base. the individual fieldwork activities lasted from a few days to up to 2 weeks. in april 2004, rv Lance conducted Survey work in hornsund. for an overview on all profiles, See the information in tables 1 and 2. in addition to these expeditions, longterm monitoring of ice thickness was conducted in the inner part of kongsfjorden, with personnel from the Sverdrup Station of the norwegian polar institute in ny-ålesund, measuring Snow and ice thickness by drilling on five fast-ice positions over the entire Season when ice covers the inner parts of kongsfjorden (see table 3). all measurements were limited to ice thick enough to carry people and equipment, meaning very thin ice could not be Studied here.

Table 2.

Em profiles with date, location, length and ID (for data See Fig. 2). S Stands for South, N for north

Table 3.

Ice-thickness monitoring at Kongsfjorden in 2004. Corresponding monitoring data of Snow thickness, ice thickness and freeboard are plotted in Figure 3a and b

Kongsfjorden

Two Sites were investigated in detail, and both are located in the inner part of the fjord, one of them close to the Southern Shore (kf2), and one of them close to the northern Shore (kf4) of the fjord (fig. 1b). in addition, ice-thickness monitoring was undertaken at five Sites, including the two Sites with detailed observations (kf1–5): four of them in the inner part and one (kf5) in the central part of the fjord. at kf5, only three readings could be taken due to ice break-up. two 200m thickness profiles from kf2 and kf4 (fig. 2a) Show curves with Similar characteristics, and a lateral thickness variability of about 0.1 m. this variability was also observed in monitoring measurements from drillings, where the average from three drillings was taken for each Site. despite the fact that ice formation usually Starts in the northern inner part of kongsfjorden, the ice was observed to be thicker in the Southern part from em measurements in march (fig. 2a).

Fig. 2.

(a) Kongsfjorden thickness profiles (March 2004). Squares indicate measurements from the Southern Site KF2, triangles those from the northern Site KF4. (b) Van Mijenfjorden thickness profile from the Southern location VMS (March 2004). (c) Thickness profiles from the Southern location VMS at Van Mijenfjorden (June 2004). (d) Van Mijenfjorden thickness profiles from the northern location VMN (June 2004). (e) Hornsund thickness profiles from Burgerbukta (HSB) (April 2004). (f) Inner Hornsund (HSI) thickness profiles (April 2004).

Van Mijenfjorden

Two Sites were investigated, vms and vmn. they are located in the western part of the fjord, one of them near the Southern coast, the other on the opposite Side in the northern part of the fjord. the Southern location was visited twice, in march during the winter Season, and in june during the melt Season, while the northern Site was only visited in june. the measurements from march (fig. 2b) Show a profile Similar to those from kongsfjorden, with measured total thickness variations not larger than about 0.1 m. for measurements taken in june, both Snow and ice thicknesses differ Substantially when comparing the two locations vms (fig. 2c) and vmn (fig. 2d). data collected independently reveal ice thicknesses of 1.13 m (for 23 march 2004) and 1.15 m (for 22 april 2004) about 1 km east of vmn, and 0.75 ±0.05 m (for 22 april 2004), 0.65 ±0.05 m (for 2 may 2004) and 0.45 ±0.05m for 6 june 2004 for vms (k. høyland, unpublished data). these data in principle agree with the profiles presented here, and they Show, along with our data, a Substantial thickness change from march to june at vms compared to the area near vmn. the two profiles measured at vms (fig. 2c) exhibit different levels of thickness. it has to be noted that vms was located relatively close to land. profile vms1b Started from the eastern part of the research Site towards the Southern Shore, whereas vms2 Started from the western part of the research Site towards the north. the two Starting points were approximately 50m apart. it is assumed that the ice at vms2 was more exposed to the warm-water inflow, and therefore melting had progressed further than for vms1b. at vmn, melting had not properly Started (fig. 2d). the two profiles vmn1 and vmn2 were obtained in the Same area, not further than 100m from each other, but in different directions (vmn1 north–south, vmn2 east–west). here, the ice was Slightly thicker than at the Southern location in march. thickness variations along profile vmn1 (0–50 m) are dominated by Snow-thickness variations (fig. 2d). van mijenfjorden Snow thicknesses were generally less than in kongsfjorden and hornsund. from other investigations (ice-core texture inspection and oxygen isotope data; S. gerland and t. martma, unpublished information) it can be assumed that van mijenfjorden Snow was exposed to a high degree of Superimposed ice formation, where parts of the Snow layer covering Sea ice have turned into ice, which increases the ice thickness. Superimposed ice formation on Sea ice is a known process, and has been observed previously on Svalbard, at kongsfjorden (Reference Gerland, Winther, Ørbæk and IvanovGerland and others, 1999, Reference Gerland, Haas, Nicolaus and Winther2004; Reference Nicolaus, Haas and BareissNicolaus and others, 2003), but also in other regions Such as the baltic Sea/gulf of finland (Reference KawamuraKawamura and others, 2001) and in the antarctic (Reference Kawamura, Ohshima, Takizawa and UshioKawamura and others, 1997, Reference Kawamura, Jeffries, Tison and Krouse2004; Reference Haas, Thomas and BareissHaas and others, 2001).

Hornsund

Two Sites were investigated: burgerbukta (hsb, fig. 2e) and inner hornsund (hsi, fig. 2f). the three profiles at burgerbukta were taken in the Same area, i.e. within approximately 500 m. ice-thickness profiles from burgerbukta (fig. 2e) appear Similar to those measured in kongsfjorden and van mijenfjorden. by contrast, thickness profiles from inner hornsund exhibit a larger variability in total thickness, mainly dominated by Snow-thickness variations (fig. 2f). in general, Snow thickness varies more than for the other fjords (although this comparison is Somewhat limited Since fewer Snow-thickness data could be obtained in winter for kongsfjorden and van mijenfjorden). Snow-thickness variations could be due to local wind conditions, but it is difficult to Speculate about this without using wind data from that Site.

Long-term monitoring

The winter of 2003/04 was a case with relatively early ice formation, So that thicknesses of about 0.5 m were already reached in january (fig. 3a). the northern part (kf3 and kf4) had more Snow and less intense ice growth compared to the inner Southern part (kf2), where Snow was less thick. this north–south difference also appears in the em profiles measured in march 2004 (fig. 2a). Site kf1 had most Snow early in the monitoring period. the westernmost Site, kf5, could only be visited three times. here, ice formed later than at the other locations. towards march, the Snow thickness increased and freeboard became negative (fig. 3b). air temperature in ny-ålesund (fig. 3c) Shows warm Spells, especially in march, which caused ice growth to Slow. in may, major parts of the Snow turned into ice (superimposed-ice and/or Snow-ice formation), adding to the ice thickness, and as a result freeboard became positive again (fig. 3b). it is interesting that the maximum Snow thickness is reached at different times for the individual Sites (from early march for kf1 to early april for kf2). the onset of melt occurred at the end of may/beginning of june, as observed in previous years (Reference Gerland, Winther, Ørbæk and IvanovGerland and others 1999), with the air temperature Staying permanently above 0˚c.

Fig. 3.

Monitoring time Series for Kongsfjorden, 2004. See legends for Symbols, colours and Sites. (a) Ice thickness (Z _ice) and Snow thickness (Z _snow). (b) Freeboard (FB). Monitoring-site positions and parameters are listed in Table 3. Each value plotted represents the mean of three measurements in the corners of a 10m triangle at each Site. (c) Air temperature at Ny-Ålesund, January–July 2004. Dates are dd-mm-yy.

Observations Since 1997 Show that maximum ice thickness (fig. 4) varies between 0.59 and 0.92 m (average 0.71 m), and maximum Snow thickness varies between 0.17 and 0.30m (average 0.21 m; observations between 1997–98, 2000, 2002–05; Reference Gerland, Winther, Ørbæk and IvanovGerland and others, 1999; Reference Nicolaus, Haas and BareissNicolaus and others 2003). the maximum ice thickness exhibits a Significant interannual variability, as also do the related parameters ice extent and onset of ice formation.

Fig. 4.

Maximum ice and Snow thickness in inner Kongsfjorden for years 1997–2005, except 1999 and 2001 (no data available). Data from 2002 are from Reference Nicolaus, Haas and BareissNicolaus and others (2003). Means are 0.71 for ice (grey Solid line) and 0.22 for Snow (dashed line). Data before 2004 are from the northern inner part of Kongsfjorden. Data from 2004 and 2005 are from the available monitoring Sites (KF1–5 in 2004, KF1–4 in 2005).