Research methodology

Four centrally located neighbourhoods, Kampung Mahmoodiah, Gertak Merah, Kim Teng Park and Tanjung Puteri, were selected for study on the basis that they are largely residential, safe and easy to access, and within the Johor Bahru inner ring road (Jalan Lingkaran Dalam; Federal Route 188). The areas are ethnically and linguistically diverse. Informants local to the area consider the neighbourhoods largely working class, with parts of Gertak Merah and Tanjung Puteri more middle class. I walked the streets of each neighbourhood on a single day in September 2018. I took a photo of each sign using my digital camera, carefully framing one sign into one shot. The photographs, and so the signs, were later tagged for the languages used within them, the apparent author and for top-down or bottom-up authorship. For example, a sign warning of danger on an electricity substation was tagged ‘BM; National Power Company; top-down’. Review, cross-referencing and counting of these tags formed the basis of the quantitative data analysis. It enabled me to understand which languages were used in the linguistic landscape, which were used more or less frequently, and which were used more or less frequently with top-down and bottom-up authorship. This quantitative analysis was then contextualised with a qualitative analysis of the signage which locates the signage in various semantic domains, ‘an area of meaning in a language’ (Ottenheimer, Reference Ottenheimer2006), such as hospitality, or education.

Quantitative data analysis

I found that seven languages were used in Johor Bahru. These languages and the number of signs in which they appear are presented in Figure 1.

Figure 1.

Languages and their quantified usage in the linguistic landscape of Johor Bahru city's residential neighbourhoods

Figure 1 highlights that the most commonly used language in the analysed neighbourhoods is BM, found to be used in 170 instances within the examined signs. English closely follows with 144 instances of usage. Chinese is the third most commonly used language with 70 instances. Other European languages (five instances) and Arabic (one instance) can also be found in the linguistic landscape. The usage of English in the linguistic landscape of Johor Bahru city's residential areas accounts for 37% of all language use. Usage of BM accounts for 44% of all language usage whilst Chinese accounts for 18%. Italian, Spanish, Arabic and Latin account for a little over 1% of other language usage. Figure 2 shows the distribution of these languages across top-down and bottom-up usage.

Figure 2.

The usage of languages across the bottom-up and top-down signage of Johor Bahru City's residential neighbourhoods

Figure 2 highlights that English has a much higher status in bottom-up signage, in which it accounts for 42% of language usage, than it does in top-down signage, in which it accounts for only 23%. The figure also highlights an imbalance of BM usage across top-down and bottom-up signage. In top-down signage, BM accounts for 72% of all language used, but in bottom-up signage it accounts for 33%. Data on the usage of Chinese shows a similar pattern. The language is used much more frequently in bottom-up signage (24%) than in top-down signage (3%). Whilst BM dominates top-down signage, English dominates bottom-up signage.

From this quantitative analysis, it can be seen that BM dominates the linguistic landscape. Usage of BM dominates top-down authored signage. English dominates bottom-up authored signage. The following section presents a qualitative analysis of the collected data in order to explain the quantitative findings, uncovering who the users of these languages are and why they might use them.

Qualitative data analysis

It seems to be the case in Johor Bahru city's residential neighbourhoods that top-down signage puts government policy into practice. Figure 3 shows that the national power company, ‘Tenaga Nasional Berhad’ (National Power Limited), affords BM prominence by its exclusive usage in their signage.

Figure 3.

Tenaga Nasional Berhad (National Power Limited)

In street signage, BM is featured most prominently by its exclusive usage in two scripts, i.e. Jawi and the Roman alphabet. Rumi Malay is located centrally on the signage, employing the Roman alphabet, below a transliteration which employs the more traditional, culturally valuable and now endangered Jawi script (Yaacob et al., Reference Yaacob, Zainab, Mahmud and Edzan2001) (see Figure 4).

Figure 4.

Jalan Lekas (Lekas Street)

Similarly, government-erected signage that celebrates the anniversary of the Sultan of Johor's coronation gives prominence to BM through the language's exclusive usage, as illustrated in Figure 5.

Figure 5.

Daulat Tuanku (Long live the King)

The signage of educational bodies can also be considered to be top-down. Signage erected by educational bodies with an association with Islam give prominence to BM, as the city's street signage does, through its exclusive usage in two scripts. This is visible in Figure 6, which presents the Johor Bahru City Religious School's main sign, and Figure 7, which presents the main sign of The (Arabic) Religious Secondary School of Johor.

Figure 6.

Sekolah Agama Bandar Johor Bahru (Johor Bahru City Religious School)

Figure 7.

Sekolah Menengah Tinggi Agama (Arab) Negeri Johor (The [Arabic] Religious Secondary School of Johor)

Educational bodies which provide especially for learners with special educational needs also seem to adhere to government policy in their main signage, displaying a preference for BM. See the main signage of the Johor Special Education School for Cerebral Palsy and the School for Special Children, which is visible in Figures 8 and 9.

Figure 8.

Sekolah Pendidikan Khas Cerebral Palsy Johor (Johor Cerebral Palsy Special Education School)

Figure 9.

Sekolah Kanak-Kanak Istimewa (Special Children's School)

Similarly, the public library corporation display their signage exclusively in BM, as below in Figure 10.

Figure 10.

Perbadanan Perpustakaan Awam Johor (Johor Public Library Corporation)

Two exceptions were found to the common observation that education-related signage uses BM exclusively. In Figure 11, a children's play school with an affiliation to Islam displays Rumi BM most prominently, alongside English. The English content is presented less prominently by being printed in a smaller font, below the Rumi BM content. Jawi script BM is also used, but less prominently than the Rumi BM and English by its very small size to the right of the sign, in the centre of the logo. In Figure 12, the city council is seen to use BM with Latin, with equal prominence, to provide the scientific naming of a tree in an internationally conventional manner.

Figure 11.

Pendidikan Al-Quran Sepanjang Hayat (Lifelong Quranic Education)

Figure 12.

Majlis Bandaraya Johor Bahru (Johor Bahru City Council)

The linguistic landscape crafted by religious bodies affiliated with Christianity commonly displays a preference for English and Chinese, as illustrated in Figures 13 and 14.

Figure 13.

St. Christopher's Church

Figure 14.

Calvary City Church

Bottom-up signage was found to be less demonstrative of government policy. A distinct category of bottom-up signage stood out in the linguistic landscape of Johor Bahru city's residential neighbourhoods which I term neighbourly warnings, ‘signs erected by the public to carry a warning message’. Within neighbourly warnings, English was found to be the most commonly used language. In some cases, English was used exclusively, as in Figure 15. In other cases, as in Figures 16, 17 and 18, English was used in parallel to BM and Chinese to convey a similar warning. When collecting data, I was able to ask the author of the ‘NO PARKING’ sign in Figure 15 as to why he chose to employ English within it. He answered: ‘Because I use English, everyone can understand, everyone can stay off my grass’. This anecdote suggests that the author perceives other languages, perhaps BM and Chinese, as not being universally understood in the area and that perhaps English is the area's lingua franca.

Figure 15.

No parking

Figure 16.

This premises is under CCTV surveillance

Figure 17.

Beware of dogs

Figure 18.

Beware of dog

Signs used within contexts related to hospitality seemed to display a clear preference for English. In most cases, English was found within monolingual signage, as in the examples presented in Figures 19, 20 and 21.

Figure 19.

Grand BlueWave Hotel

Figure 20.

The Grand Jade

Figure 21.

Suria College of Hospitality

Signage in the context of hospitality was infrequently bilingual. English was always used in hospitality-related bilingual signage, and it was always used more prominently, by being presented in a larger font size or being positioned on top. English was sometimes used with BM and Chinese, as in the examples in Figures 22 and 23. It seems that English is used in the semantic domain of hospitality with connotations of luxury and sophistication that the BM used does not have. Review of Figure 22 demonstrates this well. BM's ‘pangsapuri’ (apartments) denotes the building type and connotes that the dwellings are small. However English's ‘seaview residence suites’ suggests that the apartments are spacious, impressive and have a desirable perspective.

Figure 22.

Seaview Residence Suites

Figure 23.

Erica Hotel

Signage relating to semantic domains of motoring were a common occurrence. These signs demonstrated a strong preference for the use of English, as presented in Figures 24, 25, 26 and 27.

Figure 24.

Lethdhana Sons Trading

Figure 25.

48 hours

Figure 26.

Silverstone

Figure 27.

Season parking

Figure 24 provides a typical example of a motoring-related shop sign. The display of an English business name, ‘Lethdhana Sons Trading’ is found alongside a description in BM of the shop type and its services ‘Kedai Servis Motosikal’ (Motorcycle Service Store). Figure 25 demonstrates a similar pattern of language usage.

Figures 24, 25 and 26 also display an English-language product name, a common feature in motoring-related signage. Figures 25 and 27 display English as the most prominent language but also employ Chinese and BM. In Figure 27, Chinese is used more prominently than BM by being printed in a large red font, towards the top of the sign, below the English writing. BM is only used in a small dark red font, towards the bottom of the sign, above the ‘PARK AT YOUR OWN RISK’ writing.

Another common signage context was real estate. Monolingual signage in English was the most common. Examples can be found in the advertisement of a property for sale in Figure 28 and the advertisement of a room for rent in Figure 29. That said, bilingual signage in which English featured with BM or Chinese could also be found, but less frequently. An example is given in the advertisement of a property available to let in Figure 30.

Figure 28.

Sale

Figure 29.

Room for rent

Figure 30.

To let

Signage addressing people with an association with nearby Singapore was commonly found. In Figure 31, English is employed to explicitly address people who work in Singapore. In Figure 32, English is employed again but implicitly addresses those associated with Singapore, by stating that the available room is close to the Johor/Singapore customs border.

Figure 31.

Singapore worker. Don't parking here!

Figure 32.

Room to let