Introduction
Given the importance of employee creativity in enhancing organizational competitiveness (Nijstad, De Dreu, Rietzschel, & Baas, Reference Nijstad, De Dreu, Rietzschel and Baas2010; Shalley, Zhou, & Oldham, Reference Shalley, Zhou and Oldham2004), numerous studies have focused on how to stimulate employee creativity (e.g., Baer & Oldham, Reference Baer and Oldham2006; Javed, Rawwas, Khandai, Shahid, & Tayyeb, Reference Javed, Rawwas, Khandai, Shahid and Tayyeb2018; Ogbeibu, Senadjki, & Gaskin, Reference Ogbeibu, Senadjki and Gaskin2018; Zhang & Bartol, Reference Zhang and Bartol2010). However, the impact of employee creativity, especially on leaders' behaviors – for example, empowering behaviors (Sharma & Kirkman, Reference Sharma and Kirkman2015; Uhl-Bien, Riggio, Lowe, & Carsten, Reference Uhl-Bien, Riggio, Lowe and Carsten2014) – has been largely ignored, although employees' characteristics are believed to shape what their leaders think and how they behave (Han, Harold, & Cheong, Reference Han, Harold and Cheong2019; Tepper, Moss, & Duffy, Reference Tepper, Moss and Duffy2011; Wang, De Pater, Yi, Zhang, & Yang, Reference Wang, De Pater, Yi, Zhang and Yang2020). Social exchange theory suggests that leaders and employees can exchange resources and have a mutual obligation of reciprocity (Blau, Reference Blau1964; Cooper, Kong, & Crossley, Reference Cooper, Kong and Crossley2018; Zhang, Li, & Harris, Reference Zhang, Li and Harris2015). Creative employees can help leaders cope with challenging work of teams or organizations (Nijstad et al., Reference Nijstad, De Dreu, Rietzschel and Baas2010; Zhou & George, Reference Zhou and George2003). Consequently, their leaders may be willing to empower them with authority and responsibility (Cropanzano & Mitchell, Reference Cropanzano and Mitchell2005). Therefore, this study aims to investigate whether employee creativity influences leader empowering behaviors and to explore the intervening mechanism and boundary condition of this relationship.
Previous research has suggested that employees can influence their leaders' behaviors through their dyadic interactions (Han, Harold, & Cheong, Reference Han, Harold and Cheong2019; Khan, Moss, Quratulain, & Hameed, Reference Khan, Moss, Quratulain and Hameed2018; Uhl-Bien et al., Reference Uhl-Bien, Riggio, Lowe and Carsten2014). In Chinese organizations, supervisor–subordinate guanxi, which encompasses personal interactions both inside and outside the workplace (Chen & Tjosvold, Reference Chen and Tjosvold2007; Cheung, Wu, Chan, & Wong, Reference Cheung, Wu, Chan and Wong2009; Law, Wong, Wang, & Wang, Reference Law, Wong, Wang and Wang2000), is considered the most important relationship between leaders and employees (Zhang, Deng, Zhang, & Hu, Reference Zhang, Deng, Zhang and Hu2016). Unlike western countries which address formal relationships in the workplace (i.e., leader–member exchange), in China, employees rely heavily on their personal interactions with their leaders to achieve work-related goals (Dulebohn, Bommer, Liden, Brouer, & Ferris, Reference Dulebohn, Bommer, Liden, Brouer and Ferris2012; Zhang, Li, & Harris, Reference Zhang, Li and Harris2015). According to social exchange theory, employee creativity serves as a valuable resource for employees' exchanges with their leaders at work, and through the exchanges a high level of supervisor–subordinate guanxi may emerge (Blau, Reference Blau1964; Cooper, Kong, & Crossley, Reference Cooper, Kong and Crossley2018; Lam, Liang, Ashford, & Lee, Reference Lam, Liang, Ashford and Lee2015). With the development of high-quality guanxi, leaders are motivated to repay these creative employees by exhibiting leader empowering behaviors (Chen & Tjosvold, Reference Chen and Tjosvold2007; Taormina & Gao, Reference Taormina and Gao2010). Therefore, this study proposes that employee creativity influences leader empowering behaviors through the mediating role of supervisor–subordinate guanxi.
However, leaders may not always favor creative employees (Gino & Ariely, Reference Gino and Ariely2012). As creative employees can challenge the status quo and have a high level of intellectual curiosity, leaders may also perceive them to be uncontrollable or even threatening (Keem, Shalley, Kim, & Jeong, Reference Keem, Shalley, Kim and Jeong2018; Zheng, Qin, Liu, & Liao, Reference Zheng, Qin, Liu and Liao2019). Similarity-attraction theory (Byrne, Reference Byrne1971) suggests that individuals tend to be attracted to and form relationships with people who are similar to them (Byrne, Reference Byrne1971). The perceived similarity reduces uncertainty in interactions between leaders and employees, and increases leaders' affection for employees when leaders develop guanxi with employees and make decisions of empowerment (Huang & Iun, Reference Huang and Iun2006; Mitteness, DeJordy, Ahuja, & Sudek, Reference Mitteness, DeJordy, Ahuja and Sudek2016; Turban & Jones, Reference Turban and Jones1988). Moreover, compared with demographic similarity such as similarity in education, gender, age, and race, deep-level similarity comprising perceived congruence of values, attitudes, and personality may be more critical to interactions and exchanges between leaders and employees (Tepper, Moss, & Duffy, Reference Tepper, Moss and Duffy2011). Therefore, in this study, we propose that supervisor–subordinate similarity (i.e., the extent to which supervisors and subordinates perceive similarity between them in outlook, perspectives, and values; Turban and Jones, Reference Turban and Jones1988) moderates the relationship between employee creativity and supervisor–subordinate guanxi. Accordingly, we propose a moderated-mediation model.
This study contributes to the existing literature in several ways. First, despite their primary focus on the antecedents of employee creativity, prior studies have neglected its influence, especially on leaders' behaviors (Ogbeibu, Senadjki, & Gaskin, Reference Ogbeibu, Senadjki and Gaskin2018; Zhang & Bartol, Reference Zhang and Bartol2010). This study investigates the effect of employee creativity on leader empowering behaviors, expanding the literature on the consequences of employee creativity (Hur, Moon, & Rhee, Reference Hur, Moon and Rhee2016; Newman, Herman, Schwarz, & Nielsen, Reference Newman, Herman, Schwarz and Nielsen2018). This study also responds to calls to examine whether employee characteristics can shape leader behaviors (Uhl-Bien et al., Reference Uhl-Bien, Riggio, Lowe and Carsten2014; Wang et al., Reference Wang, De Pater, Yi, Zhang and Yang2020). Second, this study examines the role of supervisor–subordinate guanxi as the underlying mechanism under which employee creativity facilitates leader empowering behaviors, thus highlighting the importance of supervisor–subordinate guanxi in promoting social exchanges between employees and leaders and facilitating empowering leadership (Dulebohn et al., Reference Dulebohn, Bommer, Liden, Brouer and Ferris2012; Lam et al., Reference Lam, Liang, Ashford and Lee2015; Zhang, Li, & Harris, Reference Zhang, Li and Harris2015). Third, by identifying the moderating role of supervisor–subordinate similarity, this study offers a deeper understanding of boundary conditions under which employee creativity promotes supervisor–subordinate guanxi and, ultimately, leader empowering behaviors, thus addressing the importance of perceived deep-level similarity in exchanges between leaders and employees (Mitchell, Eby, & Ragins, Reference Mitchell, Eby and Ragins2015; Xu, Qin, Dust, & DiRenzo, Reference Xu, Qin, Dust and DiRenzo2019). Figure 1 illustrates the conceptual model of this study.
Conceptual model.
Theory and hypothesis development
Employee creativity and leader empowering behaviors
Employee creativity refers to the ability of employees to generate novel and useful ideas related to products, processes, or practices at work (Baer & Oldham, Reference Baer and Oldham2006). Creative employees are usually characterized by divergent thinking and cognitive flexibility (Gino & Ariely, Reference Gino and Ariely2012). They are likely to develop new ideas, come up with multiple solutions to problems, and remain flexible when facing changeable and complex situational demands (Nijstad et al., Reference Nijstad, De Dreu, Rietzschel and Baas2010). They also have a high level of intellectual curiosity, which motivates them to experience new things and cope with difficulties (Keem et al., Reference Keem, Shalley, Kim and Jeong2018). Although extensive research has regarded creativity as an individual outcome (Baer & Oldham, Reference Baer and Oldham2006; Ogbeibu, Senadjki, & Gaskin, Reference Ogbeibu, Senadjki and Gaskin2018; Zhang & Bartol, Reference Zhang and Bartol2010), a few studies have investigated the consequences of employee creativity, including individual job performance (Hur, Moon, & Rhee, Reference Hur, Moon and Rhee2016), organizational competitiveness (Shalley, Zhou, & Oldham, Reference Shalley, Zhou and Oldham2004), and firm innovation (Liu, Gong, Zhou, & Huang, Reference Liu, Gong, Zhou and Huang2017), and have paid little attention to its impact on leaders' behavior. In this study, we propose leader empowering behaviors – a particular leader behavior that refers to leaders delegating authority, involving employees in decision-making, increasing the meaningfulness of work, and expressing confidence in employees' abilities (Ahearne, Mathieu, & Rapp, Reference Ahearne, Mathieu and Rapp2005) – as the consequence of employee creativity.
Social exchange theory suggests that people engage in interactions that generate mutual obligations framed on exchanges of resources and expectations of reciprocity (Blau, Reference Blau1964; Ren & Chadee, Reference Ren and Chadee2017). The norm of reciprocity creates obligations toward another when the other one has engaged in behaviors that was beneficial to the recipient (Lam et al., Reference Lam, Liang, Ashford and Lee2015). Creative employees can provide novel and useful solutions to organizational problems and help organizations respond to external demand quickly (Nijstad et al., Reference Nijstad, De Dreu, Rietzschel and Baas2010). Employee creativity can be seen as a valuable resource that helps leaders solve difficult problems, pursue organizational goals, and ease the pressure of team or organizational performance (Gong, Cheung, Wang, & Huang, Reference Gong, Cheung, Wang and Huang2012; Zhou & George, Reference Zhou and George2003). According to the norm of reciprocity, leaders have the obligation to repay favors to creative employees, and are inclined to exhibit empowering behaviors by providing employees with job resources, such as power, autonomy, and opportunities for career development (Cropanzano & Mitchell, Reference Cropanzano and Mitchell2005). Moreover, previous research has indicated that employee characteristics, such as employee task performance (Wang et al., Reference Wang, De Pater, Yi, Zhang and Yang2020) and employee proactive personality (Han, Harold, & Cheong, Reference Han, Harold and Cheong2019), and the interaction between supervisors and subordinates such as leader–member exchange (Sharma & Kirkman, Reference Sharma and Kirkman2015), influence leader empowerment behaviors. Following this stream of research, we suggest that employee creativity has a positive influence on leader empowering behaviors. Accordingly, we propose the following hypothesis:
Hypothesis 1: Employee creativity is positively related to leader empowering behaviors.
Mediating role of supervisor–subordinate guanxi
To further explain how creativity influences leader empowering behaviors, we suggest that supervisor–subordinate guanxi is the intervening mechanism. Supervisor–subordinate guanxi is defined as a dyadic relationship between a supervisor and a subordinate that encompasses personal interactions both inside and outside the workplace (Lam et al., Reference Lam, Liang, Ashford and Lee2015). Unlike western countries where employees rely mainly on formal work-related relationships with leaders to get things done, China is a transitional society that lacks a strong bureaucratic work structure, and the overlap between work and personal life is much more pervasive (Law et al., Reference Law, Wong, Wang and Wang2000; Zhang, Li, & Harris, Reference Zhang, Li and Harris2015). For example, in China, employees usually develop guanxi with their leaders by visiting leaders' homes and sending gifts on important holidays to obtain protection or privileges at work (Zhang, Li, & Harris, Reference Zhang, Li and Harris2015). For leaders, establishing and maintaining guanxi with employees is critical to ensuring loyalty of employees (Zhang, Li, & Harris, Reference Zhang, Li and Harris2015). Moreover, supervisor–subordinate guanxi includes social–emotional exchanges and mutual interdependence based on high levels of trust, respect, and obligation (Chen & Tjosvold, Reference Chen and Tjosvold2006). Thus, in the context of Chinese organizations, supervisor–subordinate guanxi is thought to be the most critical relationship in the workplace (Zhang et al., Reference Zhang, Deng, Zhang and Hu2016). Previous research has demonstrated that supervisor–subordinate guanxi influences employees' attitudes and behaviors, including job satisfaction (Chang, Reference Chang2014; Cheung et al., Reference Cheung, Wu, Chan and Wong2009), engagement in open-minded discussions (Chen & Tjosvold, Reference Chen and Tjosvold2007), turnover intention (Hom & Xiao, Reference Hom and Xiao2011), and justice perception (Chen, Friedman, Yu, & Sun, Reference Chen, Friedman, Yu and Sun2011). Supervisor–subordinate guanxi has also been shown to predict leaders' supervisory decisions, including resource allocation, job assignment, and bonuses (Law et al., Reference Law, Wong, Wang and Wang2000). Furthermore, recent studies have identified factors that influence supervisor–subordinate guanxi, such as employees' demographic characteristics, gregariousness (Taormina & Gao, Reference Taormina and Gao2010), and proactive personality (Zhang, Li, & Harris, Reference Zhang, Li and Harris2015). In this study, we propose that supervisor–subordinate guanxi mediates the relationship between employee creativity and leader empowering behaviors.
Employee creativity is believed to contribute to supervisor–subordinate guanxi. Social exchange theory suggests that people tend to interact with individuals whom they think are attractive in order to exchange economic and social favors (Cooper, Kong, & Crossley, Reference Cooper, Kong and Crossley2018). Employee creativity can be regarded as an important resource that helps leaders cope with challenging situations, reduce the burden of their work, and achieve team or organizational goals in novel and useful ways (Gong et al., Reference Gong, Cheung, Wang and Huang2012; Nijstad et al., Reference Nijstad, De Dreu, Rietzschel and Baas2010; Zhou & George, Reference Zhou and George2003). Leaders will view highly creative employees as attractive and valuable. They are inclined to express their care for and bestow favors on creative employees and develop personal ties with them (Cooper, Kong, & Crossley, Reference Cooper, Kong and Crossley2018; Cropanzano & Mitchell, Reference Cropanzano and Mitchell2005). Furthermore, highly creative employees are often confident in their own abilities and value at work (Oldham & Cummings, Reference Oldham and Cummings1996; Tse, To, & Chiu, Reference Tse, To and Chiu2018). They are likely to believe that they can become members of the in-group, developing close relationships with leaders and enjoying additional privileges (Law et al., Reference Law, Wong, Wang and Wang2000). Thus, creative employees are motivated to establish high-quality guanxi with their leaders.
We also propose that with the development of supervisor–subordinate guanxi, leader empowering behaviors will increase. In Chinese organizations, supervisor–subordinate guanxi is widely used to distinguish between subordinates of the in-group and those of the out-group (Zhang et al., Reference Zhang, Deng, Zhang and Hu2016). Leaders favor members of the in-group when they make supervisory decisions and allocate job resources (Law et al., Reference Law, Wong, Wang and Wang2000; Warren, Dunfee, & Li, Reference Warren, Dunfee and Li2004). Employees who have high-quality guanxi with their leaders enjoy high levels of trust and concern and are allocated important resources and better job returns (Chen & Tjosvold, Reference Chen and Tjosvold2006; Cheung et al., Reference Cheung, Wu, Chan and Wong2009; Zhang, Li, & Harris, Reference Zhang, Li and Harris2015). Beyond formal supervision and guidance, leaders tend to empower these employees by providing them with autonomy, power, and opportunities for promotion and awards (Chen & Tjosvold, Reference Chen and Tjosvold2007; Law et al., Reference Law, Wong, Wang and Wang2000). Moreover, leader empowering behaviors may entail risks because empowered employees may make mistakes and wrong decisions or abuse the delegated power (Han, Harold, & Cheong, Reference Han, Harold and Cheong2019; Wang et al., Reference Wang, De Pater, Yi, Zhang and Yang2020). High-quality supervisor–subordinate guanxi characterized by high levels of mutual care, respect, and trust would make leaders tolerant of the potential risks of empowerment, thus ultimately promoting leader empowering behaviors (Chen & Tjosvold, Reference Chen and Tjosvold2006; Mills & Ungson, Reference Mills and Ungson2003).
According to the above arguments, employee creativity facilitates the development of supervisor–subordinate guanxi, and supervisor–subordinate guanxi predicts leader empowering behaviors. Social exchange theory suggests that high-quality guanxi comprising trust, contributions, and loyalty can be generated through the process of social exchanges (Chen & Tjosvold, Reference Chen and Tjosvold2006; Ren & Chadee, Reference Ren and Chadee2017). Based on reciprocal obligations and resource exchanges (Blau, Reference Blau1964; Ren & Chadee, Reference Ren and Chadee2017), employee creativity is viewed as a resource for social exchanges that can foster high-quality supervisor–subordinate guanxi, which in turn motivates leaders to repay creative employees by providing them with power, autonomy, and opportunities for career development (Cropanzano & Mitchell, Reference Cropanzano and Mitchell2005; Nijstad et al., Reference Nijstad, De Dreu, Rietzschel and Baas2010; Zhou & George, Reference Zhou and George2003). Therefore, we suggest that employee creativity promotes leader empowering behaviors via building high-level supervisor–subordinate guanxi. Accordingly, we formulate the following hypothesis:
Hypothesis 2: Supervisor–subordinate guanxi mediates the relationship between employee creativity and leader empowering behaviors.
Moderating role of supervisor–subordinate similarity
Supervisor–subordinate similarity is defined as the extent to which supervisors and subordinates perceive similarity between them in terms of outlook, perspectives, values, and work habits (Huang & Iun, Reference Huang and Iun2006; Turban & Jones, Reference Turban and Jones1988). Previous literature has shown that compared to surface-level similarity (i.e., the demographic similarity such as in terms of education, gender, age, and race), deep-level similarity comprising perceived congruence of values, attitudes, and personality may be more important to relationships between supervisors and subordinates (Tepper, Moss, & Duffy, Reference Tepper, Moss and Duffy2011). Perceived similarity has been proved to influence various employee work outcomes, such as job satisfaction and organizational commitment (Meglino, Ravlin, & Adkins, Reference Meglino, Ravlin and Adkins1989), supervisor-rated performance (Strauss, Barrick, & Connerley, Reference Strauss, Barrick and Connerley2001), relationship conflicts (Tepper, Moss, & Duffy, Reference Tepper, Moss and Duffy2011), and supervisors' trust in and affection for their subordinates (Huang & Iun, Reference Huang and Iun2006). In this study, we propose that supervisor–subordinate similarity acts as a moderator that strengthens the positive effect of employee creativity on supervisor–subordinate guanxi. Specifically, creative employees often have high intellectual curiosity to pursue novel ideas that challenge the status quo, and are unlikely to be constrained by the existing rules and procedures (Keem et al., Reference Keem, Shalley, Kim and Jeong2018). Hence, leaders may see creative employees as uncontrollable, or even threatening (Gino & Ariely, Reference Gino and Ariely2012; Zheng et al., Reference Zheng, Qin, Liu and Liao2019). According to similarity-attraction theory, individuals who are similar will be attracted to one another, and make positive evaluations and decisions regarding one another, which leads to positive interpersonal experiences in dyads (Byrne, Reference Byrne1971; Turban & Jones, Reference Turban and Jones1988). Despite the potential uncertainty and risk related to creative employees, when leaders perceive similarity between themselves and their creative employees in terms of outlook, values, and perspectives, they develop a higher level of respect and fondness for these employees than for dissimilar employees (Goldberg, Reference Goldberg2005). Leaders will have a positive evaluation on creative employees who they perceive as similar to them, and tend to develop high-quality guanxi with them (Turban & Jones, Reference Turban and Jones1988).
By contrast, high creative subordinates who are dissimilar to their supervisors are unlikely to share common beliefs and values with their supervisors, and may even disagree about the method of performing tasks (Guillaume, Brodbeck, & Riketta, Reference Guillaume, Brodbeck and Riketta2012). Thus, leaders have more doubts and worries about them, which makes them less attractive and reduces leaders' motivation to establish good guanxi with them. Accordingly, we propose the following hypothesis:
Hypothesis 3: Supervisor–subordinate similarity moderates the relationship between employee creativity and supervisor–subordinate guanxi, such that this relationship is stronger when the level of supervisor–subordinate similarity is high rather than low.
To complete our theoretical model, we further propose that supervisor–subordinate similarity conditionally influences the strength of the indirect relationship between employee creativity and leader empowering behaviors. Drawn on social exchange theory (Blau, Reference Blau1964) and the similarity-attraction paradigm (Byrne, Reference Byrne1971), employee creativity is more closely associated with supervisor–subordinate guanxi when paired with a high level of supervisor–subordinate similarity than a low level of similarity. By facilitating supervisor–subordinate guanxi, leaders are more inclined to empower creative employees whom they perceive as similar to themselves. Hence, we predict that supervisor–subordinate guanxi mediates the relationship between employee creativity and leader empowering behaviors when the level of supervisor–subordinate similarity is high. By contrast, when leaders perceive creative employees to be dissimilar to them, they have less fondness for and more doubts about these employee. Therefore, we suggest that leaders are unlikely to establish good guanxi with them and exhibit empowering behaviors. Accordingly, we formulate the following hypothesis:
Hypothesis 4: Supervisor–subordinate similarity moderates the indirect effect of employee creativity on leader empowering behaviors via supervisor–subordinate guanxi. The indirect effect of employee creativity on leader empowering behaviors via supervisor–subordinate guanxi is stronger when the level of supervisor–subordinate similarity is high.
Method
Sample and procedures
To test our conceptual model, we collected multi-time and multi-source survey data from 13 companies in central China. We participated in a program run by the China National Institute of Standardization and this program aims to help companies apply for new industry standards. We contacted senior managers of these companies to obtain permission to visit the companies and distribute our questionnaires. We targeted middle-level or top-level managers (supervisors) and their immediate subordinates (subordinates) from these organizations. Each participant was given a unique code in order to match the supervisor–subordinate data. All participants were informed that the surveys were anonymous and that the data would be only for research purposes. Three survey rounds were conducted to collect data on different variables from the supervisor and subordinate participants.
At time 1, the subordinates were asked to respond to questionnaires measuring employee creativity and the control variables. The supervisors were asked to report their perceived similarity to each of their subordinates. A total of 573 subordinates and 126 supervisors were invited to participate in the study. Of those, 397 subordinates and 108 supervisors returned complete responses at time 1. Three months later, at time 2, we traced the supervisors who responded to the questionnaires at time 1, and invited them to report on the variable of supervisor–subordinate guanxi. Ninety-five supervisors returned complete responses. At time 3, 4 months after time 2, we conducted a third survey, asking the subordinates who responded to the questionnaires at time 1 to report on the variable of perceived leader empowering behaviors. We received 351 complete questionnaires of subordinates at time 3. After excluding questionnaires with missing data and unmatched responses, we obtained a final sample of 309 supervisor–subordinate dyads, including 309 subordinates (53.9% response rate) and 78 supervisors (61.9% response rate). In the subordinate sample, 41.7% of the participants were female. Most participants were 21–30 years old (72.5%), 21.7% were 31–40 years old, and the rest were over 40 years old. Most participants held a bachelor's degree (87.4%). In terms of duration of employment in the respective companies, 18.8% of the participants were employed for fewer than 3 years, 55.4% were employed for 3–10 years, and 25.9% were employed for more than 10 years.
Measures
All variables were measured on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree; 5 = strongly agree).
Employee creativity (time 1)
A four-item scale from Baer and Oldham (Reference Baer and Oldham2006) was used to measure employee creativity. Subordinates were asked to respond to items such as ‘I can suggest many creative ideas that might improve working conditions at organization’ and ‘I often come up with creative solutions to problems at work.’ The self-reporting of creativity is widely used and accepted in the creativity literature (e.g., Hur, Moon, & Rhee, Reference Hur, Moon and Rhee2016; Shalley, Gilson, & Blum, Reference Shalley, Gilson and Blum2009). The Cronbach's alpha for this scale was .89.
Supervisor–subordinate similarity (time 1)
Drawn from Turban and Jones (Reference Turban and Jones1988), supervisors were asked to rate the extent to which they perceive that their each subordinate is similar to themselves. Example items are ‘We see things in much the same way’ and ‘We are alike in a number of areas.’ The Cronbach's alpha for this three-item scale was .88.
Supervisor–subordinate guanxi (time 2)
Following Lam et al. (Reference Lam, Liang, Ashford and Lee2015), we adopted the six-item scale developed by Law et al. (Reference Law, Wong, Wang and Wang2000) to measure the supervisor–subordinate guanxi. Supervisors were asked to answer items such as ‘During holidays or after office hours, we would call or visit each other,’ and ‘We always share with each other about thoughts, problems, needs, and feelings,’ and ‘When there are conflicting opinions, we definitely stand on each other's side.’ These event-based items identified several activities or behaviors to indicate the relationships between supervisors and subordinates in China. The Cronbach's alpha for this measurement was .91 in our study.
Leader empowering behaviors (time 3)
The empowering behaviors of leaders were measured using a 10-item scale from Ahearne, Mathieu, and Rapp (Reference Ahearne, Mathieu and Rapp2005). Subordinates assessed their leaders' behaviors in four aspects: (1) enhancing the meaningfulness of their work; (2) promoting participation in decision-making; (3) expressing confidence in high performance; and (4) providing autonomy from bureaucratic constraints. Example items were ‘My manager helps me understand how my objectives and goals relate to that of the company,’ ‘My manager often consults me on strategic decisions,’ and ‘My manager allows me to do my job my way.’ The Cronbach's alpha was .92.
Control variables
In this study, we controlled a number of the subordinates' demographic variables, including age (1 = below 20 years old, 2 = from 21 to 30 years old, 3 = from 31 to 40 years old, 5 = from 41 to 50 years old, 6 = over 50 years old), gender (0 = male, 1 = female), work tenure, and education level (1 = college degree, 2 = Bachelor degree, 3 = Master or PhD degree). Previous research indicated that these variables are related to leaders' empowering behaviors and supervisor–subordinate guanxi (Han, Harold, & Cheong, Reference Han, Harold and Cheong2019; Zhang, Li, & Harris, Reference Zhang, Li and Harris2015).
Measurement model
Confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) were conducted using AMOS 20.0 to check the convergent and discriminant validity of the constructs in our study. The measurement model was composed of four latent factors (employee creativity, supervisor–subordinate guanxi, leader empowering behaviors, and supervisor–subordinate similarity). In Table 1, the results of CFA indicated that the four-factor model had a better fit to the data (χ2 = 382.03, df = 224, CFI = .96, TLI = .95, RMSEA = .05) than the three-factor model where employee creativity and supervisor–subordinate similarity were combined into one factor (χ2 = 931.14, df = 227, CFI = .83, TLI = .81, RMSEA = .10). The four-factor model also showed a better fit than the two-factor model (i.e., employee creativity and supervisor–subordinate similarity were combined; supervisor–subordinate guanxi and leader empowering behaviors were combined; χ2 = 1526.70, df = 229, CFI = .68, TLI = .65, RMSEA = .14). Finally, the one-factor model showed a worst fir to the data among all the models (χ2 = 2366.16, df = 230, CFI = .47, TLI = .42, RMSEA = .17). The CFA results indicated the discriminant validity of the four targeted constructs in this study.
Measurement model comparisons
CFI, comparative fit index; TLI, Tucker–Lewis index; RMSEA, root mean-square error of approximation.
***p < .001.
Note: n = 309. In the three-factor model, employee creativity, and supervisor–subordinate similarity were combined into one factor. In the two-factor model, employee creativity and supervisor–subordinate similarity were combined, and supervisor–subordinate guanxi and leader empowering behaviors were combined. One-factor model means all items were merged into one single factor.
Common method bias
We applied two types of statistic techniques to evaluate the effect of common method bias. First, we employed Harman's one-factor test (Podsakoff & Organ, Reference Podsakoff and Organ1986). The result showed that all items were categorized into four components, with eigenvalues greater than 1.0, which accounts for 66.91% of the total variance. The first component accounts for 25.31% of the variance. Then, we conducted CFA and compared the model fit among the measurement model, one-factor model, and measurement model with a common method factor (Williams, Cote, & Buckley, Reference Williams, Cote and Buckley1989). The results showed that the fit of our measurement model (χ2 = 382.03, df = 224, CFI = .96, RMSEA = .05) was significantly better than the fit of the model with only one factor (χ2 = 2366.16, df = 230, CFI = .42, RMSEA = .17). Also, we included a common method factor which comprises all constructs' indicators in the measurement model. The results of the measurement model with both constructs and a common method factor (χ2 = 284.04, df = 201, CFI = .97, RMSEA = .04) marginally improved the model fit of the measurement model with only constructs. The path coefficients and their significance were similar between the two measurement models. Thus, common method bias is not a serious concern for our study (Flynn, Huo, & Zhao, Reference Flynn, Huo and Zhao2010).
Results
Descriptive statistics
Table 2 shows the means, standard deviations, and correlations for all variables in this study. Consistent with expectations, employee creativity and supervisor–subordinate guanxi were positively related to leader empowering behaviors (r = .30, p < .05; r = .35, p < .05). Employee creativity was positively related to supervisor–subordinate guanxi (r = .30, p < .05). These results provided initial support for our hypotheses.
Means, standard deviations, and correlation analysis
Note: n = 309.
*p ＜ .05, **p ＜ .01.
Hypotheses testing
Hierarchical regression analysis was conducted to test our hypotheses. Results for the analysis are shown in Table 3. Hypothesis 1 predicted that effect of employee creativity on leader empowering behaviors. Results of model 6 showed that employee creativity is positively related to leader empowering behaviors, which support hypothesis 1 (β = .30, p < .001). Hypothesis 2 predicted the mediating role of supervisor–subordinate guanxi in the relationship between employee creativity on leader empowering behaviors. Results in model 2 suggested that employee creativity is positively related to supervisor–subordinate guanxi (β = .29, p < .001). In model 7, supervisor–subordinate guanxi is positively related to leader empowering behaviors (β = .28, p < .001). The effect of employee creativity on leader empowering behaviors remained significant (β = .21, p < .001), which showed that supervisor–subordinate guanxi partly mediated the relationship between employee creativity and leader empowering behaviors. Thus, hypothesis 2 received support. To further test the mediating effect, we adopted a bias-corrected bootstrapping procedure (Hayes, Reference Hayes2009). The indirect effect of employee creativity on leader empowering behaviors via supervisor–subordinate guanxi was significantly positive (95% confidence interval [CI] = .04 to .14; excluding 0), supporting hypothesis 2.
Results of regression analysis
Note: n = 309.
*p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001.
In relation to hypothesis 3, the moderating effect of supervisor–subordinate similarity in the relationship between employee creativity and supervisor–subordinate guanxi was tested. The results of model 4 indicated that the interaction term between supervisor–subordinate similarity and employee creativity has a positive and significant effect on supervisor–subordinate guanxi (β = .28, p < .001), which supported hypothesis 3. To further illustrate the moderating role of supervisor–subordinate similarity, we followed Aiken, West, and Reno (Reference Aiken, West and Reno1991) graphical procedure of computing slopes, setting the low level of the moderating variable as one standard deviation below its mean score, and the high level as one standard deviation above the mean. Consistent with hypothesis 3, Figure 2 shows that when the level of supervisor–subordinate similarity is high, employee creativity is more positively associated with supervisor–subordinate guanxi (simple slopes test: β = .32, p < .001), compared to the condition of lower level of supervisor–subordinate similarity (simple slopes test: β = .02, p > .05).
Moderating effect of supervisor–subordinate similarity in the relationship between employee creativity and supervisor–subordinate guanxi.
Additionally, all variance inflation factors in models 1–7 are below 2, suggesting that multicollinearity was unlikely to be a significant problem in our results (Hair, Black, Babin, Anderson, & Tatham, Reference Hair, Black, Babin, Anderson and Tatham2006).
Finally, hypothesis 4 related to whether supervisor–subordinate similarity moderates the indirect effect of employee creativity on leader empowering behaviors via supervisor–subordinate guanxi. We used PROCESS, an SPSS macro by Preacher, Rucker, and Hayes (Reference Preacher, Rucker and Hayes2007) and Hayes (Reference Hayes2013) to assess moderated mediation. As shown in Table 4, the conditional indirect effect of employee creativity on leader empowering behaviors via supervisor–subordinate guanxi was significant in the condition of high supervisor–subordinate similarity (conditional indirect effect = .13, bias-corrected 95% CI = .06 to .21), but not under the condition of low supervisor–subordinate similarity (conditional indirect effect = .01, ns). Thus, hypothesis 4 was supported.
Conditional indirect effect at specific values of supervisor–subordinate similarity
Note: 95% bias-corrected bootstrap CIs are derived are based on 5,000 bootstrap samples. Moderator values listed are the sample mean and ±1 standard deviation; se is the standard error.
*p < .05, **p < .01, *** p < .001.
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to investigate how and when employee creativity promotes leader empowering behaviors from the social exchange and similarity perspectives. The findings of this study support that employee creativity predicts leader empowering behaviors, and that this relationship is mediated by supervisor–subordinate guanxi. Moreover, the results suggest that supervisor–subordinate similarity moderates the relationship between employee creativity and supervisor–subordinate guanxi. Finally, the findings indicate that supervisor–subordinate similarity moderates the indirect effect of employee creativity on leader empowering behaviors via supervisor–subordinate guanxi. The indirect effect of employee creativity on leader empowering behaviors via supervisor–subordinate guanxi is stronger when the level of supervisor–subordinate similarity is high rather than low.
This study has several theoretical implications. First, this study contributes to the burgeoning literature on employee creativity by investigating the effect of employee creativity on leader empowering behaviors. Most previous studies have regarded employee creativity as an outcome representing performance (Baer & Oldham, Reference Baer and Oldham2006; Ogbeibu, Senadjki, & Gaskin, Reference Ogbeibu, Senadjki and Gaskin2018; Zhang & Bartol, Reference Zhang and Bartol2010), whereas only a few research has begun to investigated the outcomes of employee creativity on the individual and organizational levels, such as employees' task performance (Hur, Moon, & Rhee, Reference Hur, Moon and Rhee2016), innovating behaviors (Newman et al., Reference Newman, Herman, Schwarz and Nielsen2018), and firm innovation (Liu et al., Reference Liu, Gong, Zhou and Huang2017). Our findings expand the research on the consequences of employee creativity on leader behaviors by identifying empowering behavior as an outcome of employee creativity. Our findings are also consistent with studies based on followership theory indicating that employee characteristics will produce effects on their leaders' perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors (Sharma & Kirkman, Reference Sharma and Kirkman2015; Uhl-Bien et al., Reference Uhl-Bien, Riggio, Lowe and Carsten2014). As such, this study provides a deep understanding of the effectiveness of employee creativity within organizations.
Second, this study improves the understanding of the relationship between employee creativity and leader empowering behaviors by examining the role of supervisor–subordinate guanxi as the underlying mechanism through the lens of social exchange theory. Previous studies of social exchange theory focused mainly on formal work-related ties, whereas a few have highlighted the emerging importance of supervisor–subordinate guanxi in the social exchange process (Dulebohn et al., Reference Dulebohn, Bommer, Liden, Brouer and Ferris2012; He, Sun, Zhao, Zheng, & Shen, Reference He, Sun, Zhao, Zheng and Shen2020; Lam et al., Reference Lam, Liang, Ashford and Lee2015; Zhang, Li, & Harris, Reference Zhang, Li and Harris2015). In line with prior literature, the findings of our study provide empirical evidence supporting that supervisors tend to interact and form guanxi with subordinates whom they think are attractive to exchange resources (Blau, Reference Blau1964; Cooper, Kong, & Crossley, Reference Cooper, Kong and Crossley2018). By focusing on the role of supervisor–subordinate guanxi, our study also expands the literature on the underlying mechanisms under which employee characteristics and behaviors influence leadership (Uhl-Bien et al., Reference Uhl-Bien, Riggio, Lowe and Carsten2014; Wang et al., Reference Wang, De Pater, Yi, Zhang and Yang2020).
Moreover, this study provides further insights into the indigenous research of guanxi in China. In transitional economies such as China, social interactions beyond the work domain often determine supervisory decisions and work outcomes (Chen & Tjosvold, Reference Chen and Tjosvold2006; Law et al., Reference Law, Wong, Wang and Wang2000). Thus, supervisor–subordinate guanxi is thought to be a critical interpersonal relationship within organizations (Zhang et al., Reference Zhang, Deng, Zhang and Hu2016). Previous literature has investigated the drivers of supervisor–subordinate guanxi, such as employee gregariousness (Taormina & Gao, Reference Taormina and Gao2010) and proactive personality (Zhang, Li, & Harris, Reference Zhang, Li and Harris2015). Moreover, supervisor–subordinate guanxi has been found to influence the attitudes and behaviors of Chinese managers and employees, including job satisfaction (Cheung et al., Reference Cheung, Wu, Chan and Wong2009), participative leadership (Chen & Tjosvold, Reference Chen and Tjosvold2006), and turnover intention (Hom & Xiao, Reference Hom and Xiao2011). Our study identifies employee creativity as an antecedent of supervisor–subordinate guanxi, and leader empowering behaviors as an outcome of supervisor–subordinate guanxi, which expands the research on antecedents and consequences of supervisor–subordinate guanxi in the Chinese context.
Last but not least, this study sheds light on supervisor–subordinate similarity as the boundary condition under which employee creativity influences leader empowering behaviors by facilitating supervisor–subordinate guanxi. Previous studies have demonstrated that the effect of a social exchange relationship is contingent on individual differences and social factors (Lam et al., Reference Lam, Liang, Ashford and Lee2015). Based on similarity-attraction theory (Byrne, Reference Byrne1971), this study demonstrates that perceived similarity between supervisors and subordinates serves as an interpersonal factor that benefits the social exchange process by predisposing supervisors to entertain feelings of respect and fondness for and identification with their subordinates (Huang & Iun, Reference Huang and Iun2006; Turban & Jones, Reference Turban and Jones1988). Specifically, this study shows that creative employees to whom their supervisors perceive similarity are more likely to form personal relationships with supervisors and obtain empowerment. Our findings explain why some creative employees become empowered while others do not. Future research should incorporate perceived similarity in outlook, perspectives, and values into the research on contingencies of driving supervisor–subordinate guanxi and empowerment leadership.
Practical implications
This study also has implications for managerial practice. First, leader empowering behaviors can enhance organizational effectiveness and motivate employees to be autonomous and proactive at work (Ahearne, Mathieu, & Rapp, Reference Ahearne, Mathieu and Rapp2005). Our findings suggest that employee creativity positively influences leader empowering behaviors. To promote empowering leadership, organizations should adopt human resource practices that boost employee creativity, such as rewards and compensations, coaching and training, and career development programs. Second, the results of this study suggest that supervisor–subordinate guanxi is the underlying mechanism through which creative employees obtain empowerment. Considering that supervisor–subordinate guanxi is instrumental in social exchanges between supervisors and subordinates and can foster leader empowering behaviors, organizations could organize informal gatherings of employees and supervisors away from workplaces (e.g., picnics and excursion) to promote supervisor–subordinate guanxi. Third, our findings indicate that leaders are inclined to establish guanxi with creative employees and empower them when perceiving a high level of similarity to them. Accordingly, when recruiting new employees or assigning employees to different jobs, organizations should consider employees whose deep-level characteristics such as values, attitudes, and work habits are similar to those of supervisors, which can make employees better exert creativity and promote empowering leadership.
Limitations and future research
This study has several limitations which should be addressed by future research. First, we conducted this study only in China. The results of this study may not be generalized to western contexts. Future research can investigate additional cultural factors such as collectivism and traditionalism which may influence leaders' receptiveness to personal ties (Chen & Tjosvold, Reference Chen and Tjosvold2006). Cross-cultural comparisons would also be interesting. Second, we measured supervisor–subordinate guanxi by adopting the answers from leaders, considering that leaders are often in a dominant position in leader–employee relationships (Nie & Lämsä, Reference Nie and Lämsä2015). Given the different statuses of supervisors and subordinates, future research could include both leaders' and employees' perceptions of guanxi into our model to examine how differences in perceived guanxi between the two parties influence the empowerment outcomes. Finally, there may be more moderators that should be considered when investigating how and when leaders empower their creative employees. Future research can examine whether individual differences (e.g., employee moral virtues) and contextual factors (e.g., power distance and task complexity) affect the way in which employee creativity influences supervisor–subordinate guanxi and leader empowering behaviors (Lin, Chen, Herman, Wei, & Ma, Reference Lin, Chen, Herman, Wei and Ma2019).
Financial support
This study was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 72001100), the Ministry of Education Project of Humanities and Social Science (Grant No. 20YJC630122), the Degree and postgraduate education Program of Nanjing University of Finance and Economics (Grant No. Y19017), and the Higher Education Project of Nanjing University of Finance and Economics (Grant No. gigfb201913 and No.gigf202022).
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Wenjun Cai is a PhD candidate in School of Management, University of Science and Technology of China. Her research interests include leadership, employee creativity, innovation management, and entrepreneurship. Her research has been published in journals such as Management Decision.
Jun Song is an Assistant Professor of Human Resource Management at the School of Business Administration, Nanjing University of Finance & Economy, China. Her research interests include unethical behavior in organizations, dark-side leadership, and cultural values. Her research has been published in journals such as Asia Pacific Journal of Management, Journal of Managerial Psychology, Current Psychology, and Higher Education.
Changqing He is an Assistant Professor of Management at the Colleague of Economics and Management, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, China. His research interests include dark-side leadership, innovation management, human resource management, and cultural values. His research has been published in journals such as Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resource, Current Psychology, Higher Education, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, Chinese Management Studies, and Creativity and Innovation Management.
Dongdong Wang is an Assistant Professor of Human Resource Management at the School of Business Administration, Nanjing University of Finance & Economy, China. His research interests include employee creativity, leadership, and human resource management. His research has been published in journals such as Current Psychology.
Xuanjin Yang is a research assistant at the Graduate School, Nanjing University of Finance and Economics, China. Her research interests include educational management, higher education, and decision-making analysis. Her research has been published in journals such as China University Teaching.
