Morphological focus

The taxonomy of Artemia in Algeria reflects the genus’s overall complexity, characterised by high morphological plasticity, diverse reproductive modes, and frequent polyploidy, which together complicate species delimitation (Sainz-Escudero et al., Reference Sainz-Escudero, López-estrada, Rodríguez-flores and García-parís2021). Populations across Algerian salt lakes exhibit both bisexual and parthenogenetic reproductive strategies, with varying ploidy levels documented across habitats (Ghomari et al., Reference Ghomari, Selselet, Hontoria and Amat2011; Kara and Amarouayache, Reference Kara and Amarouayache2012). While A. salina (Linnaeus, 1758) predominates in sites such as Bethioua Saltern, Chott Marouane, Garaet El Tarf, and Sabkha Ez-Zemoul, parthenogenetic populations are more common in Sabkha Sidi Bouziane, El-Bahira, Goléa Mnea, and Ouargla (see Table 1 and Figure 1 for the provinces and mapped geographical positions of the hypersaline aquatic ecosystems reviewed in this article) (Ghomari et al., Reference Ghomari, Selselet, Hontoria and Amat2011; Hidouci et al., Reference Hidouci, Ghomari, Maamri and Othmani2022).

Table 1.

Potential Artemia sites in Algeria (B: bisexual population; P: parthenogenetic population; 2n, 4n: indicates the ploidy level of a parthenogenetic population [2: diploid, 4: tetraploid]). Adapted from Kara and Amarouayache (Reference Kara and Amarouayache2012) and Missoum (Reference Missoum2022)

Table 1 Long description

Rows list 18 Algerian sites with columns for site name, geographical coordinates, area in hectares, depth in meters, mode of reproduction, species, and reference numbers. Areas range from less than 1 hectare at Gharabas Lake, Chott Touggourt, and Mellaha Guergour El Amri to 76800 hectares at Sabkha Timimoun, 48000 at Chott Melghir, 43000 at Sabkha Oran, and 36000 at Chott Marouane. Depth is often not given; reported depths include 40 maximum at Chott Marouane, 0.6 at Sabkha Ez Zemoul, 2 maximum at Golea Salt Lake, and a maximum depth value is listed for Garaet El Tarf without a number. Mode of reproduction is missing for several sites; where provided it includes bisexual only at Chott Marouane, Garaet El Tarf, Sabkha Timimoun, and Sabkha El Melah, and parthenogenetic diploid at Sabkha Oran and Chott Ouargla. Mixed modes appear at Sabkha Ez Zemoul with bisexual and parthenogenetic diploid, at Chott Melghir with bisexual and parthenogenetic diploid, and at Arzew Saltern and Sabkha Sidi Bouziane with bisexual plus parthenogenetic tetraploid and diploid. Species is blank for many rows; Artemia salina is listed at Chott Marouane, Sabkha Ez Zemoul, Arzew Saltern, Garaet El Tarf, Chott Melghir, Sabkha Sidi Bouziane, Sabkha Timimoun, and Sabkha El Melah. Coordinates span from about 35 degrees north in Oran, Setif, and Oum El Bouagui sites to about 29 degrees north in Adrar and Bechar sites, with longitudes shown both west and east.

(1) Sorgeloos et al. (Reference Sorgeloos, Lavens, Léger and Tackaert1986), (2) Zemmouri (Reference Zemmouri1991), (3) Haddag (Reference Haddag1991), (4) Beladjal et al. (Reference Beladjal, Mertens, Dumont, Belk, Dumont and Maier1995), (5) Kara (Reference Kara1998), (6) Gagneur and Kara (Reference Gagneur, Kara, Wetzel and Gopal2001), (7) Kara et al. (Reference Kara, Bengraine, Derbal, Chaoui and Amarouayache2004), (8) Samraoui et al. (Reference Samraoui, Chakri and Samraoui2006), (9) Amarouayache et al. (Reference Amarouayache, Derbal and Kara2009b), (10) Amarouayache and Kara (Reference Amarouayache and Kara2010), (11) Amarouayache et al. (Reference Amarouayache, Derbal and Kara2010), (12) Amarouayache et al. (Reference Amarouayache, Derbal and Kara2012), (13) Muñoz et al. (Reference Muñoz, Gómez, Green, Figuerola, Amat and Rico2008), (14) Ghomari et al. (Reference Ghomari, Selselet, Hontoria and Amat2011), (15) Derbal et al. (Reference Derbal, Amarouayache and Kara2010), (16) Hidouci et al. (Reference Hidouci, Ghomari, Maamri and Othmani2022), (17) Missoum (Reference Missoum2022),(18) Abdat and Krachaoui (Reference Abdat and Krachaoui2018), (19) Chabet Dis et al. (Reference Chabet Dis, Refes, Derbal, Aouiche, Mejdoub, Inoubli and Hmīed2024a).

Figure 1.

Distribution of Artemia in Algerian wetlands. The numbers on the map detail the various wetlands across Algeria where Artemia, commonly known as brine shrimp, are found. 1. Sabkha Oran, 2. Dayet Morseli (Oran), 3. Gharabas Lake (Oran), 4. Arzew Saltern (Bethioua, Oran), 5. Sabkha Sidi Bouziane (Relizane), 6. Mellaha Guergour El-Amri (Sétif), 7. El-Bahira Lake (Sétif), 8. Sabkha N’zouri (Ez-Zemoul), 9. Sabkha Ez-Zemoul (Oum El Bouagui), 10. Garaet El-Tarf (Oum El Bouagui), 11. Chegga Oase (El Oued), 12. Chott Melghir (Biskra), 13. Chott Marouane (El Oued), 14. Chott Touggourt, 15. Chott Ouargla, 16. Goléa Salt Lake (Ghardaia).

Figure 1 Long description

Various wetlands in Algeria are marked by numbers. Key locations include Sabkha Oran, Dayet Morseli, Gharabas Lake, Arzew Saltern, Sabkha Sidi Bouziane, Mellaha Guergour El-Amri, El-Bahira Lake, Sabkha Nzouri, Sabkha Ez-Zemoul, Garaet El-Tarf, Chegga Oase, Chott Melghir, Chott Marouane, Chott Touggourt, Chott Ouargla and Golea Salt Lake. The map includes a scale bar indicating distances in kilometers and a small inset map showing Algeria′s position within Africa. The wetlands are distributed across northern and eastern Algeria, with clusters near Oran and Oum El Bouagui. The Mediterranean Sea is visible to the north and neighboring countries Morocco and Tunisia are labeled. The map provides a geographic overview of wetland locations within Algeria.

Morphometric analyses across these populations reveal consistent sexual dimorphism and significant correlations between biometric traits and body size. For example, A. salina from Chott Marouane exhibits males averaging about 6 mm and females ranging from 5.5 to 7.5 mm, with furca lacking basal constriction, subconical male antennal lobes, a spineless copulatory organ, and a rounded ovigerous sac (Amarouayache and Kara, Reference Amarouayache and Kara2010), all features typical with the Mediterranean–North African A. salina lineages and of isometric growth in females versus more allometric growth in males (Amat, Reference Amat, Persoone, Sorgeloos, Roels and Jaspers1980; Triantaphyllidis et al., Reference Triantaphyllidis, Abatzopoulos and Sorgeloos1998). Using a standard suite of morphometric characters (body and abdominal length, furca length and setation, head capsule, first antenna, and uterine shape), Ghomari et al. (Reference Ghomari, Selselet, Hontoria and Amat2011) discriminated 16 Algerian Artemia strains and showed that several salt lakes, including Sabkha Sidi Bouziane, harbour sympatric sexual and parthenogenetic lineages of different biogeographical origin, rather than products of local polyploidisation or reproductive mode shifts in reproductive mode. These results, reinforced by Missoum’s (Reference Missoum2022) eco-biological and morphometric work in Bethioua and Sabkha Sidi Bouziane and by Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)-based diagnostics, confirm the presence of A. salina in Bethioua and, for the first time in Algeria, document parthenogenetic Artemia in Sabkha Sidi Bouziane. Consistent with this framework, Chabet Dis et al. (Reference Chabet Dis, Refes, Derbal, Aouiche, Mejdoub, Inoubli and Hmīed2024a) showed that two western A. salina populations (Timimoun and El Melah) exhibit the expected pattern of larger females but males with longer furca and first antenna, whereas Bethioua parthenogenetic females are smaller in total and abdominal length but have relatively longer furca and first antenna, clustering with other parthenogenetic lineages in multivariate space. Together, these morphometric ‘keys’ and multivariate analyses considerably refine the current picture of Artemia diversity, sexual dimorphism, and biogeographical structure in Algeria.

Genetic and phylogenetic insights

Muñoz et al. (Reference Muñoz, Gómez, Green, Figuerola, Amat and Rico2008) and Muñoz and Pacios (Reference Muñoz and Pacios2010) used mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I to demonstrate that Algerian populations include both bisexual A. salina and parthenogenetic lineages. Building on this, Sainz-Escudero et al. (Reference Sainz-Escudero, López-estrada, Rodríguez-flores and García-parís2021) confirmed that Algerian bisexual populations belong to the Mediterranean–South African A. salina lineage, and mitochondrial clock analyses indicated more recent divergence times than previously assumed. However, parthenogenetic Artemia did not form a single distinct clade in their phylogenies, but rather clustered within Asian bisexual taxa and were accordingly classified as A. urmiana Günther, 1899, and A. sinica Cai, 1989. Previous phylogenetic work based on nuclear and mitochondrial markers likewise showed that parthenogenetic lineages share close genetic affinities with Asian bisexual lineages, supporting a polyphyletic origin and multiple transitions from sexual to asexual reproduction within Artemia (e.g., involving A. urmiana, A. sinica, and Artemia sp. from Kazakhstan; Baxevanis et al., Reference Baxevanis, Kappas and Abatzopoulos2006; Maccari et al., Reference Maccari, Amat and Gómez2013). Asem et al. (Reference Asem, Eimanifar and Sun2016), who analysed all known ploidy levels of parthenogens, further demonstrated that these lineages are distributed across several Asian clades rather than forming a single monophyletic group, and that the most common parthenogenetic haplotypes are virtually identical to those of a sexual strain from Kazakhstan, consistent with an origin via historical hybridisation events.

Interestingly, Missoum (Reference Missoum2022) used PCR-based genetic analyses, including amplification of species-diagnostic loci and comparison with Artemia reference sequences, to distinguish between sexual and parthenogenetic lineages from western Algeria and to place them within the known diversity of the genus. Although based on a limited set of markers and two sites, the results show that the Algerian parthenogenetic lineage clusters near local A. salina in reference databases, consistent with the idea that some parthenogenetic Artemia may have originated from regional sexual ancestors. This pattern, which has not been documented for all parthenogenetic Artemia worldwide, fits broader hypotheses that the emergence of parthenogenesis in Artemia is complex and may involve multiple, geographically distinct sexual lineages. By comparing the obtained sequences with reference databases, the study confirmed the presence of A. salina in the Bethioua saltern and genetically validated the parthenogenetic Artemia previously reported from the Sabkha Sidi Bouziane. These molecular data complement morphological and ecological evidence, highlight the coexistence of sexual and parthenogenetic lineages in western Algeria, and illustrate the value of integrative genetic approaches for Artemia taxonomy in the region.

Overview of habitats and documented sites

Algeria possesses a diverse array of hypersaline environments suitable for Artemia, including coastal salterns, inland temporary or permanent salt lakes (chotts and sabkhas) located in the High Plateaus and the Sahara Desert (Gauthier, Reference Gauthier1928; Samraoui et al., Reference Samraoui, Chakri and Samraoui2006; Ghomari et al., Reference Ghomari, Selselet-attou, Hontoria, Moncef and Amat2012; Kara and Amarouayache, Reference Kara and Amarouayache2012) (see Figure 1). Early surveys by Gauthier (Reference Gauthier1928) and subsequent studies have documented the presence of Artemia across these regions. Kara and Amarouayache (Reference Kara and Amarouayache2012) provided a comprehensive review of Artemia biogeography in Algeria, listing 24 potential sites based on literature and field surveys. Morphometric characterisation was available for 14 of these sites at the time. Ghomari et al. (Reference Ghomari, Selselet, Hontoria and Amat2011, Reference Ghomari, Selselet-attou, Hontoria, Moncef and Amat2012) further expanded this knowledge, confirming the presence and identity of A. salina, diploid parthenogenetic Artemia, and tetraploid parthenogenetic Artemia in several major locations through morphometric and potentially other analyses (Table 1). Key regions and documented sites include:

Coastal region: Salterns near the coast, such as the salines of Arzew at Bethioua near Oran, and potentially coastal lagoons such as Laalalig near Annaba, host Artemia populations, often including A. salina and parthenogenetic forms (Haddag, Reference Haddag1991; Samraoui et al., Reference Samraoui, Chakri and Samraoui2006; Ghomari et al., Reference Ghomari, Selselet-attou, Hontoria, Moncef and Amat2012; Amorouayeche et al., Reference Amorouayeche, Belksier and Amarkouayache2024).

High Plateaus: This semi-arid region features numerous chotts and sabkhas. Sabkha Ez-Zemoul (Oum el Bouaghi) is a well-studied site that hosts A. salina and associated fauna (Amarouayache et al., Reference Amarouayache, Derbal and Kara2009a, Reference Amarouayache, Derbal and Kara2010, Reference Amarouayache, Derbal and Kara2012). El-Bahira Lake (Sétif), notable for its cold-season parthenogenetic population, is also located here (Derbal et al., Reference Derbal, Amarouayache and Kara2010; Amarouayache and Belakri, Reference Amarouayache and Belakri2015). Other sites in this region include Garaet El Tarf, Garaet Guellif, Garaet Ank El Djmel, Chott Tinsilt, and Mellaha Guergour El Amri (Sabkha Ain Arnat) (Zemmouri, Reference Zemmouri1991; Samraoui et al., Reference Samraoui, Chakri and Samraoui2006; Ghomari et al., Reference Ghomari, Selselet, Hontoria and Amat2011, Reference Ghomari, Selselet-attou, Hontoria, Moncef and Amat2012).

Saharan region: Despite the extreme arid conditions, several large chotts in the Sahara support Artemia populations. Chott Marouane (El Oued) is a major site known for its A. salina population, which has been studied for biomass and quality (Kara et al., Reference Kara, Bengraine, Derbal, Chaoui and Amarouayache2004; Amarouayache et al., Reference Amarouayache, Derbal and Kara2009b; Amarouayache and Kara, Reference Amarouayache and Kara2010; Ghomari et al., Reference Ghomari, Selselet-attou, Hontoria, Moncef and Amat2012; Benmehal et al., Reference Benmehal, Ghomari and Benabdelmoumene2022). Chott Melghir (Biskra) has also been confirmed to host Artemia (Samraoui et al., Reference Samraoui, Chakri and Samraoui2006). Other Saharan sites mentioned as supporting or potentially supporting Artemia include Touggourt, Temacine, Ouargla, and potentially Lac El Goléa (A. salina) and Sabkha of Timimoune (Adrar) (Gauthier, Reference Gauthier1928; Beladjal et al., Reference Beladjal, Mertens, Dumont, Belk, Dumont and Maier1995; Samraoui et al., Reference Samraoui, Chakri and Samraoui2006; Ghomari et al., Reference Ghomari, Selselet-attou, Hontoria, Moncef and Amat2012; Benmehal et al., Reference Benmehal, Ghomari and Benabdelmoumene2022).

Western Algeria: Sites like Mécheria and the Grande Sabkhain Oran have historical records, with the latter confirmed to host diploid parthenogenetic populations (Gauthier, Reference Gauthier1928; Ghomari et al., Reference Ghomari, Selselet-attou, Hontoria, Moncef and Amat2012). Sabkha Sidi Bouziane (Relizane) contains A. salina and both diploid and tetraploid parthenogenetic forms (Ghomari et al., Reference Ghomari, Selselet-attou, Hontoria, Moncef and Amat2012; Amorouayeche et al., Reference Amorouayeche, Belksier and Amarkouayache2024). More recently, Chabet Dis et al. (Reference Chabet Dis, Refes, Derbal, Aouiche, Mejdoub, Inoubli and Hmīed2024a) biocharacterised three Artemia populations from Timimoun, El Melah and Bethioua in western and northwestern Algeria, identifying Timimoun and El Melah as bisexual A. salina and Bethioua as parthenogenetic.

Habitat characteristics, environmental influences, and population dynamics

The distribution, abundance, and species composition of Artemia populations in Algeria are closely linked to the dynamic physicochemical characteristics of their habitats and the environmental pressures they impose.

Physicochemical habitat characteristics

Algerian Artemia habitats exhibit wide fluctuations in environmental conditions (Table 2). Salinity is the key environmental factor, acting as the primary filter, excluding most predators and competitors. It varies dramatically in space and time. For instance, Sabkha Ez-Zemoul, a temporary lake on the High Plateaus, experienced salinity ranging from 30 g/L shortly after filling to over 255 g/L as it dried (Amarouayache et al., Reference Amarouayache, Derbal and Kara2010, Reference Amarouayache, Derbal and Kara2012). In comparison, Chott Marouane in the Sahara is characterised by extreme hypersalinity, often exceeding 230 g/L and reportedly reaching 360 g/L, conditions tolerated mainly by A. salina (Amarouayache et al., Reference Amarouayache, Derbal and Kara2009b, Reference Amarouayache, Derbal and Kara2012; Amarouayache and Kara, Reference Amarouayache and Kara2010). Salterns like Bethioua operate across managed salinity gradients; under laboratory conditions, optimal survival for the local A. salina occurred between 75 and 100 g/L (Larti et al., Reference Larti, Agh and Alipour2012).

Table 2.

Physicochemical parameters of selected Artemia habitats in Algeria¹

Table 2 Long description

Physicochemical parameters are listed for seven habitats: Chott Marouane, Sabkha Ez Zemoul, SabkhaArzew a, Bethioua Saltern, Sidi Bouziane Saltern, Ouargla Drain, and El Bahira Lake. Parameters include salinity in grams per liter, temperature in degrees Celsius, pH, and oxygen in milligrams per liter. Salinity is 230 to 360 at Chott Marouane, 30 to 250 at Sabkha Ez Zemoul, 250 at SabkhaArzew a, 150 to 250 at Bethioua Saltern, 120 to 200 at Sidi Bouziane Saltern, 65 to 71 at Ouargla Drain, and 46 to 127 at El Bahira Lake. Temperature is 12 to 40 at Chott Marouane, up to 30 at Sabkha Ez Zemoul, 10 to 32 at Bethioua Saltern, 8 to 30 at Sidi Bouziane Saltern, 15 to 25 at Ouargla Drain, and 4 to 29 at El Bahira Lake; temperature is not given for SabkhaArzew a. pH is 7.2 to 8.5 at Chott Marouane, 7.5 to 8.2 at Sabkha Ez Zemoul, 7.8 to 8.5 at Bethioua Saltern, 7.5 to 8.3 at Sidi Bouziane Saltern, and 3.78 to 8.43 at Ouargla Drain; pH is not given for SabkhaArzew a or El Bahira Lake. Oxygen is 2.5 to 6.8 at Chott Marouane, 3.2 to 7.5 at Sabkha Ez Zemoul, and 3.49 to 4.77 at Ouargla Drain; oxygen is not given for SabkhaArzew a, Bethioua Saltern, Sidi Bouziane Saltern, or El Bahira Lake.

¹ Compiled from Amarouayache et al. (Reference Amarouayache, Derbal and Kara2009a), Amarouayache et al. (Reference Amarouayache, Derbal and Kara2010), Amarouayache et al. (Reference Amarouayache, Derbal and Kara2012), Amarouayache and Belakri (Reference Amarouayache and Belakri2015), Amarouayache and Kara (Reference Amarouayache and Kara2017) and Hidouci et al. (Reference Hidouci, Ghomari, Maamri and Othmani2022).

Temperature also varies widely. Water temperatures in Sabkha Ez-Zemoul fluctuated between 6°C in winter and 35°C in summer (Amarouayache et al., Reference Amarouayache, Derbal and Kara2010, Reference Amarouayache, Derbal and Kara2012), whereas Chott Marouane experiences high Saharan temperatures up to 50°C (Amarouayache et al., Reference Amarouayache, Derbal and Kara2009b). El-Bahira Lake is notable for supporting an active parthenogenetic population during colder months (Derbal et al., Reference Derbal, Amarouayache and Kara2010; Amarouayache et al., Reference Amarouayache and Belakri2015). Cysts remain viable under extreme conditions due to their cryptobiotic resistance, allowing them to survive extreme temperatures (Bennabi et al., Reference Bennabi, Meddah, Toumi, Hamel, Megharbi, Koudache and Ghomari2015). Water depth and permanence are critical because many Algerian sites are shallow (e.g., Sabkha Ez-Zemoul mean depth 0.6 m) and temporary, typically holding water from autumn/winter (October/November) to late spring/early summer (June/July) before drying completely (Samraoui et al., Reference Samraoui, Chakri and Samraoui2006; Amarouayache et al., Reference Amarouayache, Derbal and Kara2010, Reference Amarouayache, Derbal and Kara2012). This ephemeral nature enforces a strong reliance on cyst production. Although detailed data on ionic composition remain scarce, Algerian hypersaline sites are generally classified as thalassohaline, with a predominant Na-Cl ionic balance. However, local variations in salinity and ion concentrations likely influence Artemia distribution and adaptation (Ventosa and Arahal, Reference Ventosa and Arahal2009; Khallef et al., Reference Khallef, Lestini, Myllykallio and Houali2018; Khelfaoui et al., Reference Khelfaoui, Lenchi, Kebbouche-gana, Gana, Medhkour, Grine, Khemili-talbi and Akmoussi-toumi2022). The water is typically alkaline in pH.

Reproductive strategies and modes

Artemia populations in Algeria exhibit diverse reproductive strategies, with some reproducing sexually and others asexually through parthenogenesis. Bisexual reproduction involves mating between males and females, while parthenogenetic females reproduce asexually. Studies indicate that A. salina populations, such as those in Chott Marouane and Sabkha Ez-Zemoul, reproduce sexually (Amarouayache et al., Reference Amarouayache, Derbal and Kara2009b, Reference Amarouayache and Kara2010) and do not display facultative parthenogenesis observed in some other branchiopods. Conversely, populations in El-Bahira Lake and salterns such as Sidi Bouziane and Bethioua have been identified as parthenogenetic (Derbal et al., Reference Derbal, Amarouayache and Kara2010; Amarouayache and Belakri, Reference Amarouayache and Belakri2015; Amorouayeche et al., Reference Amorouayeche, Belksier and Amarkouayache2024). Despite differing patterns, bisexual and parthenogenetic populations occasionally coexist, as observed in Chott Marouane and Sabkha Ez-Zemoul, although competitive interactions may alter sex ratios (Kara and Amarouayache, Reference Kara and Amarouayache2012). These reproductive adaptations enable Artemia from Algerian salt lakes and salterns to exploit diverse hypersaline habitats, from ephemeral chotts to managed salterns.

Beyond reproductive strategies, Artemia from Algerian hypersaline systems also exhibit flexibility in reproductive modes. While oviparity is often associated with harsh or ephemeral conditions typical of many chotts and sabkhas (Barata et al., Reference Barata, Hontoria and Amat1995), studies on parthenogenetic populations from Sidi Bouziane and Bethioua salterns under laboratory conditions showed a predominance of ovoviviparity (>75% of individuals), even at high salinity (120 g/L) (Amorouayeche et al., Reference Amorouayeche, Belksier and Amarkouayache2024). This contrasts with the parthenogenetic population from El-Bahira Lake, which develops during the cold seasons and reproduces primarily by oviparity, producing relatively few cysts per brood (Derbal et al., Reference Derbal, Amarouayache and Kara2010; Amarouayache and Belakri, Reference Amarouayache and Belakri2015). The A. salina population from Chott Marouane similarly relies on oviparity to withstand extreme conditions (Amarouayache et al., Reference Amarouayache, Derbal and Kara2009a). The switch between oviparity and ovoviviparity is a key adaptation. Oviparity, the production of dormant cysts, allows populations to survive unfavourable conditions such as desiccation, extreme temperatures, or high salinity, thereby ensuring long-term persistence and dispersal (Gajardo and Beardmore, Reference Gajardo and Beardmore2012; Amorouayeche et al., Reference Amorouayeche, Belksier and Amarkouayache2024). By contrast, ovoviviparity supports rapid population growth under favourable environmental conditions (Barata et al., Reference Barata, Hontoria and Amat1995; Browne and Wanigasekera, Reference Browne and Wanigasekera2000).

Life history traits and fecundity

Life history traits of Artemia assemblages in Algerian inland saline waters, including maturation, growth rate, fecundity, and survival and mortality, vary significantly with environmental conditions, reproductive mode, and habitat. Factors such as salinity, diet, and other ecological variables play major roles in shaping these traits, which are critical for understanding Artemia ecology and optimising aquaculture practices. Artemia inhabit natural habitats with salinities ranging from 10 to 340 g/L, but are rarely found in waters with salinity below 45 g/L (Kara and Amarouayache, Reference Kara and Amarouayache2012). They exhibit several adaptations, including the ability to regulate internal salt concentration despite extreme external salinity, specialised osmoregulatory mechanisms, tolerance of low oxygen conditions in hypersaline waters, and temperature tolerance. The life cycle includes distinct stages from nauplii through multiple moults to adults, with development time varying according to environmental conditions.

Cyst and hatching characteristics

Lipids

Total lipid content in Artemia cysts can vary between populations due to genetic factors, environmental conditions, and diet. Benmehal et al. (Reference Benmehal, Ghomari and Benabdelmoumene2022) analysed cysts from six Algerian sites and found total lipid percentages ranging from 11.02% to 30.25% of dry weight, with the Saharan strain from Timimoune showing the highest lipid values. Regarding decapsulated cysts, Amarouayache et al. (Reference Amarouayache, Cakmak, Asan-ozusaglam and Amorouayeche2017) reported lipid percentages in decapsulated cysts ranging between 7.78% (Bethioua parthenogenetic strain) and 24.55% (Sidi Bouziane parthenogenetic strain) (see Table 3). Collectively, the total lipid levels reported for decapsulated Algerian Artemia by Benmehal et al. (Reference Benmehal, Ghomari and Benabdelmoumene2022) (11.02%–30.25%), Amorouayeche et al. (Reference Amorouayeche, Amarouayache, Derbal and Kara2013) (9%–33%), and Amarouayache et al. (Reference Amarouayache, Cakmak, Asan-ozusaglam and Amorouayeche2017) indicate a broad range of 7.78%–33.00% for Algerian populations. These ranges overlap with those reported for major commercial strains such as GSL (14.7%) and San Francisco Bay (SFB) (15.7%) (Dendrinos and Thorpe, Reference Dendrinos and Thorpe1987; García-Ortega et al., Reference García-Ortega, Verreth, Coutteau, Segner, Huisman and Sorgeloos1998), suggesting that Algerian populations are broadly comparable in total lipid content.

In terms of lipid variation across the sampling period during advanced stages, Hidouci et al. (Reference Hidouci, Ghomari, Maamri and Othmani2022) found that, in males, lipid concentrations showed an inverse relationship with protein levels. Lipid levels were 25 mg/L in November, decreased to 14.3 mg/L in January, and increased again to 35 mg/L in March. In females, lipid concentrations peaked at 34 mg/L in February 2017, while the minimum values (19 mg/L) occurred in November 2016 and March 2017. The average lipid concentration for females was 23.44 ± 5.56 mg/L. In nauplii, lipid levels fluctuated markedly throughout the study, from 2 mg/L in November to 51 mg/L, with an average of 23.68 ± 19.25 mg/L (see Table 4). Lipid values (mg/L) refer to concentrations measured in the extraction solution used in the original analyses, rather than the percentage of body dry weight.

Table 4.

Seasonal variation in protein and lipid concentrations (mg/L)¹ of male, female, and naupliar Artemia in Ouargla

Table 4 Long description

Protein and lipid concentrations are reported in milligrams per liter for males, females, and nauplii at specific months and for a throughout study period, alongside an observation note. For males, November lists, Increasing variation with lipid 25 and no protein value; January lists, Peak slash Drop with protein 123 and lipid 14.3; March lists, Decreasing slash Rise with protein 41 and lipid 35. For females, January lists, Minimum with protein 55 and no lipid value; February lists, Maximum slash Peak with protein 67 and lipid 34; March lists, Minimum with lipid 19 and no protein value; Throughout study lists, Little variation with no protein or lipid values. For nauplii, November lists, Increasing slash Lowest with lipid 2 and no protein value; February lists, Maximum with protein 74 and no lipid value; March lists, Drop with protein 42 and no lipid value; Throughout study lists, Increasing variations with lipid 51 and no protein value, and the lipid entry is marked highest.

¹ Values in mg/L indicate concentrations measured in the extraction/assay solution following Hidouci et al. (Reference Hidouci, Ghomari, Maamri and Othmani2022); conversion to dry-weight basis is not possible with the published data.

Fatty acids

The fatty acid profile (presence and concentration) is a critical determinant of Artemia’s nutritional value, quality, and market price (Léger et al., Reference Léger, Bengtson, Simpson and Sorgeloos1986; Sorgeloos et al., Reference Sorgeloos, Dhert and Candreva2001; Benmehal et al., Reference Benmehal, Ghomari and Benabdelmoumene2022). This lipid composition is vital for supporting growth, survival and functional development of fish and crustacean larvae, with key essential fatty acids including eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5n-3), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n-3), arachidonic acid (ARA, 20:4n-6), α-linolenic acid (ALA, 18:3n-3), and linoleic acid (LA, 18:2n-6) (Benmehal et al., Reference Benmehal, Ghomari and Benabdelmoumene2022).

In Algerian Artemia cyst lipid fractions, individual fatty acids typically fall within the following ranges: palmitic acid (16:0) around 13%–20% of total fatty acids, oleic acid (18:1n-9) about 10%–25%, EPA approximately 2%–8% and DHA generally less than 1%–3%, values broadly representative of both sexually reproducing A. salina populations from Tell sabkhas and chotts (e.g., Relizane, Melghir, Ez-zemoule, Garaet El Taref) and parthenogenetic populations (diploid and tetraploid) from inland and Saharan systems such as Bethioua, El Goléa and Adrar, although exact proportions vary among sites and hydrological years (Ghomari, Reference Ghomari2013). Across strains, palmitic, stearic (18:0), palmitoleic (16:1n-7), cis-vaccenic (18:1n-7), oleic, LA, ALA, and EPA consistently dominate the profile, with the sum of saturated (ΣSFA), monounsaturated (ΣMUFA), and polyunsaturated (ΣPUFA) fatty acids comprising nearly all identified fatty acids. ΣPUFA is usually about 20%–40% of total fatty acids, and the sum of highly unsaturated fatty acids (ΣHUFA) is about 5%–15%, within which ARA, total n-3 HUFA (mainly EPA with low or trace DHA), and total n-6 HUFA are the main contributors. Summed fatty-acid classes show consistent geographic patterns, with ΣSFA, ΣMUFA, and ΣPUFA fatty acids together accounting for the bulk of total lipids; within the above ranges, coastal Tell sabkhas (Relizane, Bethioua in Oran) and high-plateau basins (Ez-zemoule, Garaet El Taref) tend to exhibit higher PUFA and HUFA proportions compared with the more arid Saharan sites (Melghir, El Goléa, Adrar) (Ghomari, Reference Ghomari2013).

Studies on Algerian Artemia strains consistently reveal particularly high levels of ALA in some populations. For example, the Chott Marouane strain was reported to have an ALA concentration of 55.04% ± 5.83% of the total fatty acids (Benmehal et al., Reference Benmehal, Ghomari and Benabdelmoumene2022). Early analyses from Kara et al. (Reference Kara, Bengraine, Derbal, Chaoui and Amarouayache2004) and Amarouayache and Kara (Reference Amarouayache and Kara2010) showed EPA at 1.25% and DHA absent in Chott Marouane, with the n-3 series strongly dominant (21.71%–25.21% of total fatty acids); ALA, oleic, palmitic, and palmitoleic acid were the predominant fatty acids, total unsaturated fatty acids (71.08%–71.32%) clearly exceeding saturated ones (24.55%–25.14%), and HUFAs also notable (21.71%–25.21%), with linolenic acid averaging 21.15% (Kara et al., Reference Kara, Bengraine, Derbal, Chaoui and Amarouayache2004). More recent work from western Tell sabkhas highlights strong inter-strain contrasts, with EPA reaching 16.25% (Amarouayache et al., Reference Amarouayache, Cakmak, Asan-ozusaglam and Amorouayeche2017) and DHA 5.64% (Benmehal et al., Reference Benmehal, Ghomari and Benabdelmoumene2022) in the Sidi Bouziane parthenogenetic strain, in contrast to the generally low or undetectable EPA and DHA in most other strains. Comparative analyses of five Algerian strains showed saturated fatty acids (SFAs) ranging from 26.55% to 30.36%, MUFAs from 37.56% to 52.03%, and PUFAs from 21.03% to 35.12%, with ALA and LA particularly abundant in the Chott Marouane strain (22.28% and 9.51%, respectively) (Amarouayache et al., Reference Amarouayache, Cakmak, Asan-ozusaglam and Amorouayeche2017). This spectrum of dominant fatty acids (palmitic, stearic, palmitoleic, cis-vaccenic, oleic, ALA, LA, and EPA) is similar to that described for decapsulated cysts of other Artemia populations worldwide (Dendrinos and Thorpe, Reference Dendrinos and Thorpe1987; Abatzopoulos et al., Reference Abatzopoulos, Agh, Van Stappen, Rouhani and Sorgeloos2006; Naceur et al., Reference Naceur, Jenhani and Romdhane2012), but Algerian strains are distinguished by their particularly high ALA and, in most localities, comparatively low EPA and DHA in most localities.

The n-3/n-6 fatty acid ratio varied from 1.33 in Bethioua to 7.01 in Sidi Bouziane, highlighting substantial variability among populations. Consistent with the classification by Watanabe et al. (Reference Watanabe, Kitajima and Fujita1983) and supported by Navarro et al. (Reference Navarro, Amat and Sargent1992) and Benmehal et al. (Reference Benmehal, Ghomari and Benabdelmoumene2022), Algerian Artemia populations are generally classified as freshwater-type because of their high ALA and low EPA levels, together with an elevated C16:0/C16:1 ratio (ranging approximately from 1.5 to 4.5 across Algerian sites; Ghomari, Reference Ghomari2013). Despite their high ALA content, the relative deficiency of EPA and DHA in most Algerian strains necessitates bioencapsulation or lipid enrichment strategies to improve their nutritional suitability for marine aquaculture hatcheries (Kara et al., Reference Kara, Bengraine, Derbal, Chaoui and Amarouayache2004; Amarouayache et al., Reference Amarouayache, Cakmak, Asan-ozusaglam and Amorouayeche2017; Benmehal et al., Reference Benmehal, Ghomari and Benabdelmoumene2022).

Protein

Protein content varies among Algerian Artemia populations and developmental stages (Table 3). Kherraz-Chemlal et al. (Reference Kherraz-Chemlal, Boukhatem, Khelil, Sahnouni, Maatalah and Boutiba2017) reported that decapsulated cysts from Bethioua contained 55.5% dry-weight protein, whereas adult Artemia contained 41.5%. In the Ouargla population, identified as diploid Artemia parthenogenetica, Hidouci et al. (Reference Hidouci, Ghomari, Maamri and Othmani2022) nevertheless observed both males and females, consistent with the occasional occurrence of rare, often sterile males in otherwise asexual lineages. Protein concentrations in Ouargla males varied considerably, peaking at 123 mg/L in January 2017 and decreasing to 41 mg/L in March, with an average of 75.4 ± 28.59 mg/L, while protein levels in females were more stable, ranging from 55 mg/L in January to 67 mg/L in February, with an average of 62.2 ± 4.66 mg/L. Protein concentrations in nauplii also fluctuated, reaching 74 mg/L in February and dropping to 42 mg/L in March, with an average of 40.8 ± 18.77 mg/L (Table 4). As for lipids, protein values expressed in mg/L correspond to concentrations measured in the assay solution rather than the percentage of body dry weight. Taken together, these values fall within the broad ranges of protein contents reported for nauplii and adults of other Artemia strains (approximately 39%–64%; Dhont and Van Stappen, Reference Dhont, Van Stappen, Støttrup and McEnvoy2003), indicating no major protein deficiency in Algerian populations. No data are currently available on the amino acid profile of Algerian Artemia strains; however, it is generally recognised that both nauplii and adults contain sufficient levels of the ten amino acids considered essential for fish larvae (Dhont and Van Stappen, Reference Dhont, Van Stappen, Støttrup and McEnvoy2003).

Carotenoids and vitamins

Limited data are available on the carotenoid and vitamin content of Algerian Artemia populations. Missoum (Reference Missoum2022) reported a high carotenoid content of 6.83% dry weight in A. salina from Bethioua, which exceeds that of Timimoune (1.916% dry weight) and Béchar (2.133% dry weight) by more than threefold, and one-fifth of that of the commercial strain, A. franciscana (Kellogg, 1906) (49.33 mg/g, equivalent to 4.93%) (Abdat and Krachaoui, Reference Abdat and Krachaoui2018). This relatively high carotenoid concentration enhances the nutritional value of Artemia as feed for aquaculture species, particularly for improving pigmentation in cultured fish and crustaceans. Specific vitamin profiles have been reported in available studies on Algerian Artemia. However, the nutritional role of vitamins in Artemia nutrition is recognised, with Amorouayeche et al. (Reference Amorouayeche, Belksier and Amarkouayache2024) reporting the use of vitamin complex supplements (15% of the diet) during laboratory rearing of Artemia from the Sidi Bouziane and Bethioua salterns.

In light of the data documented above, it is evident that the biochemical composition of Algerian Artemia, similar to that of other Artemia populations worldwide, varies considerably with species, habitat characteristics, sources, life stage, and seasonal factors. For instance, total lipid content ranges from 7.78 % in Bethioua to 33% in Ez-Zemoul, reflecting differences in environmental conditions and local food sources (Benmehal et al., Reference Benmehal, Ghomari and Benabdelmoumene2022) (see Tables 2 and 3). Seasonal fluctuations also influence protein levels, as observed in Ouargla populations, where protein peaks during cooler months, while lipid levels peak in spring months (Hidouci et al., Reference Hidouci, Ghomari, Maamri and Othmani2022). These biochemical variations are shaped by numerous environmental drivers, including salinity, temperature, food availability, and pollution, with dietary inputs from green algae (Chlorophyceae) contributing to high palmitic acid content across populations (Brett et al., Reference Brett, Müller-navarra, Ballantyne, Ravet and Goldman2006; Farhadian et al., Reference Farhadian, Kolivand, Mahmoudi Khoshdarehgy, Ebrahimi Dorch and MahboobiiSoofiani2013). Considering these findings, when compared with well-studied commercial Artemia such as GSL and SFB strains, Algerian populations show similar ranges of total lipid and protein content but a distinct fatty acid balance, with consistently higher ALA and generally lower EPA and DHA, highlighting their potential as nutritionally valuable yet heterogeneous resources that may benefit from targeted enrichment strategies in marine hatcheries.

History and current state of exploitation in Algeria

The exploitation of wild Artemia resources in Algeria remains limited and largely unorganised compared with major producing countries. In Algeria, at least eight hypersaline ecosystems of high biological importance for Artemia have been documented, including Bethioua saltwork, Sabkha Ez-Zemoul, Sabkha Oran, Chott Marouane, Chott Melghir, Garaet El Tarf, the saline lake of El Goléa (Goléa Mnea), and El-Bahira Lake (Sétif) (Ghomari et al., Reference Ghomari, Selselet, Hontoria and Amat2011; Ghomari, Reference Ghomari2013; Amarouayache and Belakri, Reference Amarouayache and Belakri2015). While there is recognition of Artemia’s value, systematic commercial exploitation has not been fully developed. Several foundational studies on the ecology and biology of Artemia in Algeria focus on Chott Marouane and Sabkha Ez-Zemoul and examine biometrics and population dynamics (Kara and Amarouayache, Reference Kara and Amarouayache2012). These sites, along with others like Bethioua and Sidi Bouziane salterns, have the potential for sustainable harvesting if properly managed.

The total biomass of cysts produced in Chott Marouane (36,000 ha) is estimated at 7.6 t, corresponding to a yield of 0.21 kg/ha (Amarouayache and Kara, Reference Amarouayache and Kara2010), indicating significant potential for commercial exploitation. The parthenogenetic population in El-Bahira Lake (Sétif) also showed potential, with an estimated cyst reserve of 133.13 kg of dry weight (13.31 kg/ha) based on surveys in 2009 and 2013 (Amarouayache and Belakri, Reference Amarouayache and Belakri2015). While smaller in scale compared to Chott Marouane, it represents another potential source, particularly given its unique cold-adapted characteristics. However, the ephemeral nature of many Algerian salt lakes, whose water levels and salinity fluctuate significantly with rainfall and are often located in remote areas, especially in the Saharan and High Plateau regions, poses challenges for consistent harvesting operations (Kara and Amarouayache, Reference Kara and Amarouayache2012; Amorouayeche et al., Reference Amorouayeche, Belksier and Amarkouayache2024). Furthermore, harvesting practices need to avoid depleting natural populations and impacting the waterbirds that rely on Artemia (Samraoui et al., Reference Samraoui, Chakri and Samraoui2006).

Regulatory framework and sustainable management

There is no comprehensive regulatory framework specifically for Artemia exploitation in Algeria. Developing sustainable management practices would be essential to prevent overexploitation of natural populations, ensure consistent quality of harvested products, balance economic utilisation with conservation, and establish standards for commercial operations. The traditional human-operated saltpan management was compatible with maintaining population genetic diversity in A. salina. However, recent changes in saltpan use, such as aquaculture promoting the introduction of alien species, A. franciscana, and habitat loss, pose serious threats to the genetic diversity of A. salina populations in the Mediterranean area (Kara and Amarouayache, Reference Kara and Amarouayache2012). It is possible that viable cysts of A. franciscana could eventually reach Algerian Chotts and Sabkhas through human-mediated introduction or dispersion by shorebirds (Kara and Amarouayache, Reference Kara and Amarouayache2012). This potential introduction of non-native species highlights the need for regulatory frameworks and sustainable management practices to protect native Artemia biodiversity. The development of a regulatory framework for Artemia exploitation in Algeria would need to address several critical aspects: (1) harvesting quotas and seasons to avoid resource depletion, (2) quality standards for harvested cysts and biomass, (3) protection of native species against the introduction of non-native Artemia, (4) conservation of priority habitats, and (5) licensing and monitoring of commercial operations. Such a framework would help ensure the sustainable utilisation of Algeria’s Artemia resources while preserving their genetic diversity and ecological functions.

Importance of Artemia in Algerian Hatcheries

Artemia remains the most important and widely used food in fish and crustacean larviculture in Algeria, as it is globally. Vital advantages of Artemia in Algerian aquaculture include several practical and nutritional aspects. Artemia nauplii are considered an ideal live feed, easily stored and manipulated, hatching from cysts after about 24 hours of incubation (Lavens and Sorgeloos, Reference Lavens and Sorgeloos2000). These small instar I nauplii (400–500 µm long) are perfectly suitable for the mouth size of fragile larvae of a variety of marine and freshwater species (Lavens and Sorgeloos, Reference Lavens and Sorgeloos1996), and their nutritional composition meets many requirements of developing larvae. Currently, many Algerian operations depend on imported Artemia, primarily the American species A. franciscana from Utah, but no quantitative data are available on the volumes or precise origins of Artemia cysts imported by Algerian hatcheries. At the same time, Algerian Artemia populations are well documented and show good cyst and biomass quality for aquaculture use, although they are only locally or experimentally harvested and are not yet organised as a large, export-oriented commercial resource comparable to GSL or SFB. This dependence on imports highlights the potential economic benefits of developing local Artemia sources. The development of local Artemia production could significantly benefit the growing Algerian aquaculture sector by reducing dependency on imported Artemia, lowering production costs, ensuring a consistent supply, and potentially providing strains better adapted to local aquaculture species.

Controlled production and culture systems

Artemia can be cultivated under controlled conditions by manipulating reproduction through salinity control and adapting culture protocols to local conditions and available resources. For year-round production, it is necessary to implement extensive, semi-intensive, or intensive cultivation methods and develop appropriate culture systems (Dhont and Van Stappen, Reference Dhont, Van Stappen, Støttrup and McEnvoy2003). Recent laboratory studies by Amorouayeche et al. (Reference Amorouayeche, Belksier and Amarkouayache2024) on parthenogenetic populations from Sidi Bouziane and Bethioua salterns provide valuable insights for controlled production. Their methodology included: Rearing at a salinity of 120 g/L and a temperature of 24°C; feeding with baker’s yeast (85%) and a vitamin complex (15%); monitoring survival rate, growth, adult size, and reproduction traits. Their results showed: A survival rate of 50% was attained after 10 days; a growth rate of 0.19 mm/day for both populations; adult lengths of 8.28 ± 0.45 and 8.71 ± 0.55 mm for Sidi Bouziane and Bethioua, respectively; females attaining first sexual maturity at 28–30 days; ovoviviparity as the dominant reproduction mode (>75%) in both populations; mean fecundity values of 23.5 ± 14.9 and 24.82 ± 12.06 offspring per female. These outcomes demonstrate the feasibility of controlled production of Algerian Artemia strains and provide specific parameters for optimising culture conditions. Different cultivation approaches can be implemented, from extensive outdoor systems to more controlled indoor operations. The choice of system would depend on available resources and infrastructure, target production volume, intended use (cyst production vs. biomass production), and local environmental conditions.

Alternatives and complements to Artemia

Although copepods and cladocerans may provide superior fatty acid profiles or fill specific size niches, their routine use in Algerian hatcheries, like that of locally produced Artemia, has not yet been documented. To date, both Artemia and associated zooplankton from Algerian hypersaline systems remain essentially unexploited for aquaculture, and formulated microdiets are generally limited to partial replacement of imported Artemia and, where feasible, locally available copepods or cladocerans; therefore, it represents a future research avenue rather than an established practice in Algeria.

Impact of climate change on natural populations

Climate change is expected to alter temperature regimes, evaporation, and hydroperiods in Algerian hypersaline systems, with likely consequences for Artemia habitat availability and salinity profiles. However, no long-term datasets currently document climate-driven changes in Algerian Artemia populations, so these risks remain inferred from general climate projections and known physiological tolerances rather than demonstrated trends.

Economic potential and resource valorisation

Local Artemia production could significantly benefit the growing Algerian aquaculture sector by:

1. 1. Reducing dependency on imported Artemia: Algeria currently depends largely on imported Artemia for its aquaculture operations. Local Artemia resources could reduce this dependency and associated costs.

2. 2. Creating value-added products: Beyond basic cyst production, enrichment, and specialised processing of local Artemia into products such as enriched cysts, nauplii, or biomass tailored to hatchery requirements can provide value-added products suited for specific aquaculture applications.

3. 3. Integration with salt production activities: Several Artemia habitats in Algeria (Ez-Zemoul, Djeloud, Guergour El-Amri, Marouane, Bethioua, Sidi Bouziane) are already used for salt production (Kara and Amarouayache, Reference Kara and Amarouayache2012). Combining Artemia harvesting with those operations could diversify income sources and strengthen local economies while optimising existing infrastructure.

4. 4. Human consumption potential: Beyond aquaculture, the use of Artemia for human consumption has increased in some Asian countries (Van Stappen, Reference Van Stappen, Abatzopoulos, Beardmore, Clegg and Sorgeloos2002), offering an opportunity to utilise adult biomass alongside cysts in Artemia farming.

Conservation and sustainable management

Traditional saltpan management was once compatible with maintaining genetic diversity in A. salina populations. However, modern changes in saltpan use, including aquaculture activities and habitat loss, now threaten the genetic diversity of A. salina in the Mediterranean region (Kara and Amarouayache, Reference Kara and Amarouayache2012). The potential for viable cysts of non-native species to reach Algerian chotts and sabkhas through human introduction or bird-mediated dispersal underscores the need for robust conservation and sustainable management measures (Kara and Amarouayache, Reference Kara and Amarouayache2012). Addressing these challenges requires key considerations, including:

1. 1. Biodiversity preservation: Artemia biodiversity in the Mediterranean Basin is likely unique compared to other parts of its natural range, and preserving this biodiversity, particularly the genetic diversity of native A. salina and parthenogenetic populations, should be a priority.

2. 2. Habitat protection: Many Artemia habitats in Algeria are threatened by pollution, environmental modification, and climate change; protecting these sites is essential for sustaining Artemia populations.

3. 3. Sustainable harvesting practices: Establishing protocols that maintain population viability while permitting economic utilisation is crucial for long-term sustainability.

4. 4. Prevention of non-native species introduction: Implementing strict measures to prevent the introduction of non-native Artemia, particularly A. franciscana, is essential for maintaining native biodiversity.

5. 5. Integrated management with other activities: Many Artemia habitats overlap with salt production and other uses, so integrated management approaches that balance these activities are required. A comprehensive management framework for Algerian Artemia resources would ensure their conservation while enabling sustainable economic use.

Directions for future research

Based on the reviewed literature, several key directions for future research on Algerian Artemia can be identified:

1. 1. Comprehensive genetic characterisation: Further genetic studies are needed to characterise the unique genetic traits of Algerian Artemia strains using modern molecular methods to clarify their evolutionary relationships and adaptive genetic variations.

2. 2. Expanded geographical coverage: While well-studied sites such as Chott Marouane, Sabkha Ez-Zemoul, Bethioua, and Sidi Bouziane have been studied, many potential Artemia habitats remain unexplored, particularly in the Saharan region.

3. 3. Climate change impacts: Research on the effect of climate change on Artemia populations and their habitats in Algeria is needed to guide conservation and management strategies.

4. 4. Optimised culture protocols: Refining site-specific and species-specific culture protocols for Algerian Artemia strains would facilitate their commercial production and utilisation.

5. 5. Nutritional enhancement: Although Algerian Artemia strains generally possess good nutritional value, they contain low levels of HUFAs, particularly EPA and DHA, which are vital for the growth and survival of marine fish and crustacean larvae. EPA levels of 4%–5% in Artemia promote optimal larval performance, whereas concentrations in Algerian populations (e.g., Bethioua: 0.09%; Sidi Bouziane: 0.05%) fall below this threshold. Future research should focus on enrichment techniques to improve HUFA content, such as HUFA-rich supplements, commercial enrichment emulsions, microalgae-based enrichment, or custom formulations tailored to target aquaculture species.

6. 6. Economic feasibility studies: Comprehensive assessments of the economic feasibility of commercial Artemia production in Algeria, including both wild harvesting and controlled culture, would guide investment and development planning.

7. 7. Ecological interactions: Additional studies on the ecological role of Artemia in Algerian hypersaline ecosystems, including interactions with other organisms and contributions to ecosystem function, would enhance understanding of their ecological significance.

8. 8. Sustainable management frameworks: Designing and testing sustainable management approaches for Algerian Artemia resources that balance conservation with economic utilisation.

These research priorities would enhance understanding of Algerian Artemia and support their sustainable use in aquaculture and related applications.