Introduction
Jewish messianic expectations have had multiple expressions. One such expression was Messiah Ephraim. The midrashic work Pesiqta Rabbati contains numerous messianic passages,Footnote 1 as well as entire homilies,Footnote 2 that focus mainly upon Messiah Ephraim.Footnote 3 Ephraim, a son of Joseph, was adopted by Jacob (Gen 48:5). In Jewish texts other than Pesiq. Rab., the Ephraimite Messiah was consistently portrayed as a militant figure, a warrior. The objective of this article is to examine the messianic contours that apply both to Messiah Ephraim in Pesiq. Rab. and to Jesus in order to determine whether there are any Christian elements in the composition of certain passages in Pesiq. Rab.
Pesiqta Rabbati is a distinctive rabbinic work that follows the liturgical calendar in its presentation of homilies for festivals and special Sabbaths.Footnote 4 The core of Pesiq. Rab. dates to the fifth or sixth century c.e., but it contains much older material from the first and third centuries c.e.Pesiqta Rabbati may have undergone some editing in the post-Amoraic (after 425 c.e.) schools of the land of Israel under the Byzantines, and it grew by accretion until sometime in the twelfth or thirteenth century. Pesiqta Rabbati combines messianic and apocalyptic tropes from Jewish and possibly non-Jewish sources in a unique manner that is absent from other rabbinic texts from late antiquity. Pesiqta Rabbati includes narratives about the Messiah that were not necessarily created by followers of a particular Jewish messiah, but rather by a darshan (a homilist) who presented a messianic vision that is not attested to in other classical rabbinic texts. Nevertheless, there is the remote possibility that Messiah Ephraim in Pesiq. Rab. was based upon a version of messianism held by Jewish adherents to a particular messiah. The messianic narratives in Pesiq. Rab. constitute a series of texts that move forward chronologically from the initial appearance of the Messiah to the time of salvation. The messianic texts concerning Messiah Ephraim are presented in a midrashic format that combines Jewish exegesis and traditions with non-Jewish tropes, including the passion narratives of Christianity. Furthermore, the Pesiq. Rab. homilies contain some midrashic interpretations of messianic ideas that rely upon the so-called “messianic passages” in the Hebrew Bible,Footnote 5 which are also key passages within Christian fulfillment theology.Footnote 6 Since the Middle Ages, scholars have disputed the authenticity of those passages in Pesiq. Rab. that seem to contain Christian themes.Footnote 7 In my opinion, the passages in question are authentic, since they are stylistically similar to other homilies in the work and comply with midrashic hermeneutic conventions.
These messiah narratives in Pesiq. Rab. also appear in variant forms in some later medieval Jewish texts based upon Pesiq. Rab.; for example, in sections of Bereshit Rabbati composed by Moshe Ha-Darshan of Narbonne, in Pirqe Mashiaḥ, and in the Christian text Pugio Fidei.Footnote 8 Some of these narratives are hagiographic descriptions of the person of the Messiah and messianic events. The fact that the messianic passages of Pesiq. Rab. which contain Christian elements are cited in later midrashic texts lends support to the premise that these passages are authentic. I will contend that several interpretations presented in Pesiq. Rab. construct a Jewish messiah who has a few similarities with Jesus, as well as significant differences. These similarities and differences will be set forth below by presenting various messianic passages in Pesiq. Rab. The analysis will be based upon the midrashic interpretations of scriptural passages that are applied to the Messiah. The analysis will utilize a methodological construct of “contours” of messianic figures and will explore which contours are applicable to Messiah Ephraim and to the Christian Messiah.
Messianism and Messiah Ephraim
Messianism, the belief in a messiah as the redeemer of humanity, has been a focal point of theological-exegetical disputes between Jews and Christians from the inception of Christianity.Footnote 9 The practice of Christians “reverting” to Jewish rituals was highly criticized by some Christian authors (late second century to early fifth century).Footnote 10 The concern of these critics was that this reversion could lead to the rejection of the Christian Messiah. There are many descriptions of the Jewishness of JesusFootnote 11 and of the appearance of Jesus in rabbinic literature.Footnote 12 Yet there have been only a few scholarly attempts to analyze how features of the Christian Messiah may have been integrated into rabbinic discourse.Footnote 13
There are many divergent definitions of what exactly constitutes a messianic figure.Footnote 14 In the Dead Sea Scrolls, the “Branch of David” refers to a royal messiah, and his rule is universal. However, this Davidic Messiah is under the authority of the priests.Footnote 15 In other Jewish texts, two messiahs continue to dominate the discourse, namely Messiah ben DavidFootnote 16 and Messiah ben Joseph,Footnote 17 also referred to as Messiah Ephraim.Footnote 18 A further development in the texts had the Davidic Messiah succeed the Ephraimite Messiah, Messiah ben Joseph.Footnote 19 Messiah Ephraim in Pesiq. Rab. may represent a messianic figure that was “resurrected” from Tannaitic and other texts (ca. first century b.c.e. to late second century c.e.) and transformed to fulfill certain messianic expectations, creating a salvation trajectory for Jews living under Christian dominance. The Davidic Messiah gained in prominence over Messiah ben Joseph (ca. third century to sixth century), since he is presented in the texts as reigning indefinitely; in contrast, Messiah ben Joseph was slain. Sometime between the eighth and thirteenth century, the Messiah in Pesiq. Rab. was exclusively referred to as Messiah Ephraim. When the messianic passages in Pesiq. Rab. were composed, the son of Joseph (ben Joseph) was presented as Messiah Ephraim, and he became a composite figure of messianic traits for new ideological purposes, emphatically displaying a Jewish messiah who could provide comfort and hope to Israel and who would be as triumphant as the Christian Messiah.
The description of Judaism and its messiahs at the beginning of the Common Era is problematic due to the multitude of Jewish sects and Jewish messianic expectations at this time.Footnote 20 Moreover, both Judaism and Christianity were in constant flux during this period and in the next few centuries;Footnote 21 consequently, the perception of a messiah during this time period was also fluid. There is ample evidence of Jewish-Christian coexistence, which included cultural knowledge of the “Other” in the geographical area of the land of Israel. For example, different artistic depictions of the same biblical scenes by Jews and Christians in mosaics and murals have been documented that affirm their distinctive theological positions.Footnote 22 Furthermore, during the second and third centuries c.e., the boundaries between Judaism and Christianity remained permeable.Footnote 23 In the fourth century, Christianity was able to canonize most of its Scriptures and set forth boundaries defining the Christian Messiah in the New Testament. In the rabbinic movement and its literature, there was a lack of a common denominator that would have defined the Jewish Messiah. Therefore, we find different Jewish messianic figures throughout rabbinic literature. Philip Alexander writes that a fully developed rabbinic messianic doctrine was not stated until the time of Saadia Gaon (882–942) in his work, Kitab al-Amanat wa-‘Itiqadat (The Book of Beliefs and Opinions, 8).Footnote 24Pesiqta Rabbati contains a rabbinic attempt to write a hagiographic messianology; the dogma of messianism in Saadia Gaon is strikingly similar, although we are not in a position to determine whether Saadia Gaon was familiar with the messianic passages in Pesiq. Rab. Footnote 25
Dating the messianic homilies in Pesiqta Rabbati
Although the dating of Pesiq. Rab. is both complicated and speculative, I agree with Arthur Marmorstein that parts of the messianic passages of Pesiq. Rab. date to the third century.Footnote 26 An additional argument for this date is a phrase in Tannaitic question format regarding the appearance of the Messiah (Pesiq. Rab. 36:9). Rabbis mentioned in some messianic passages include: Eleazar (Pesiq. Rab. 1:15) ca. 270 c.e., in the name of Simai ca. 210 c.e.; Simeon b. Pazzi (Pesiq. Rab. 37:3) ca. 280 c.e.; Levi (Pesiq. Rab. 36:6), active in the land of Israel around 300 c.e. Similar to other midrashic works or collections, Pesiq. Rab. in the third century did not yet exist as an edited rabbinic document. The ideas were present, but they had not been collected in one midrashic work. The messianic homily Pesiq. Rab. 1 may be dated to the fourth century, mainly based upon the rabbis mentioned in that chapter.
The redactor of the entire work chose Pesiq. Rab. 1 as the introductory homily because of its messianic-eschatological contents. The “messianic” homilies in all likelihood grew by accretion until the early twelfth century, because a density of citations from the work is found in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, when Pesiq. Rab. was circulated in France and Germany. In Rashi's (Shlomo Yitzhaqi, 1040–1105) Bible commentaryFootnote 27 and the Roqeaḥ (Eleazar of Worms, 1176–1238),Footnote 28Pesiq. Rab. is cited as a source. Some excerpts from Pesiq. Rab. are found in Maḥzor Vitry,Footnote 29 which was composed by Simḥah b. Shmu'el of Vitry (died 1105), based upon minhagim and Rashi's halakhic rulings. Additionally, Moshe ha-Darshan from Narbonne (eleventh century)Footnote 30 utilized dozens of messianic passages of Pesiq. Rab. before the Parma manuscript was extant.
Manuscript Parma 3122 (dated ca. 1270) is the only complete manuscript of Pesiq. Rab. extant, whereas earlier manuscript material (from the tenth and eleventh centuries) is very fragmentary. Pesiqta Rabbati was also cited by the following medieval scholars whose writings are earlier than or overlap with the Parma Manuscript: Rambam (1135–1204);Footnote 31 Avraham ben Azri'el in Arugat Ha-Bosem (1234), who cites Pesiq. Rab. as “midrash”;Footnote 32 Ha-Rid (Isaiah ben Mali di Trani, ca. 1200–1260);Footnote 33 Maharam Rothenburg (1215–1293);Footnote 34 Raimundus Martinus (1220–1285) in Pugio Fidei, a Christian polemical work in which messianic Pesiq. Rab. material was utilized cross-culturally.Footnote 35
The exact historical time frame for the Judaizing of Christian messianism in Pesiq. Rab. is largely a matter of speculation—there is a wide frame of reference from the first to the thirteenth century c.e., when Jews and Christians were in contact and debating the Messiah. Nevertheless, there are four major cultural eras of Jewish/Christian contact that match the following stages in the textual development of Pesiq. Rab.: 1) pre-Tannaitic and Tannaitic sources from the first and third century c.e. that were integrated into the homilies;Footnote 36 2) fourth century c.e. in the land of Israel, when at least one messianic homily was created; 3) fifth to sixth century c.e., when the core of Pesiq. Rab. was composed; 4) twelfth- to thirteenth-century Europe, when the text had “congealed” into a fixed form and had been structured into a coherent work. These four eras constitute possible time periods for dating the Judaizing of Christian messianism. In my view, the fourth era listed above, occurring in Christian Europe, is the most plausible for this textual development in Pesiq. Rab.
Messiah Narratives in Pesiqta Rabbati
I have elected to focus upon the Jewish Messiah in one work, Pesiq. Rab., because it presents a certain consistency in its portrayal of Messiah Ephraim. In order to approach the issue of a Jewish messiah with possible Christian features in Pesiq. Rab., I will analyze several contours of messianic figures that relate to both Messiah Ephraim and to Jesus.Footnote 37 Messianic contours are based upon an integrative model, some features of which may not be realized in each and every messianic figure. Generally, one may ascribe at least some of the following contours to a messianic figure: 1) significant genealogy; 2) miraculous birth; 3) precocious childhood; 4) the messianic figure as a teacher, prophet, and/or king; 5) new teachings or new laws; 6) having followers or disciples; 7) physical suffering, usually resulting in a violent or noble death, typically inflicted by the government; 8) final instructions to the followers of the Messiah and to the world in general; 9) resurrection or reappearance; 10) promise of salvation and the resurrection of the dead; 11) a special relationship to the Deity. For example, all of these contours are found in Apollonius of TyanaFootnote 38 as well as in Jesus of Nazareth, whereas the contours were abbreviated and conflated with additional features in the messianic figure of Theudas.Footnote 39
The messiah narratives in Pesiq. Rab. appear in clusters in the consolation homilies surrounding Tisha be-Av, the day that commemorates the respective destructions of the first and second temple. Additionally, there are references to messianic figures in other homilies in Pesiq. Rab. Footnote 40 The consolation homilies were composed for certain liturgical purposes.Footnote 41 The Messiah is at the center of each messianic homily and provides hope by promising salvation to Israel. The messianic homilies in Pesiq. Rab. move from lamentation to consolation to salvation. This sequence parallels the chronological progression that takes place in the messianic narratives, from the Messiah's inception to his suffering to his reappearance. Such progression also parallels the liturgical cycle in Pesiq. Rab., from the dedication of the temple (Ḥanukkah) to its destruction (Tisha be-Av) to the joyous renewal of Israel (Simḥat Torah). The messianic homilies are ruaḥ ha-qodesh homilies, i.e., a prophet was supposedly inspired by the Holy Spirit to explain the homiletic verse by referring to another biblical verse.
Christian elements in Pesiqta Rabbati
When analyzing the Pesiq. Rab. messianic homilies, one notices many Christian elements, such as the utilization of biblical verses that would have been prominent in Christian messianic contexts.Footnote 42 Parts of Pesiq. Rab. read almost like a replication of some aspects of Christian theology as found in the New Testament and in the works of the early church fathers Jerome, Justin Martyr, Clement of Alexandria, and Origen.Footnote 43 These early church fathers were in contact with the emerging rabbinic class and other Jews of late antiquity. Considering these strong affinities to Christian themes, the question may be asked: Are these homilies in Pesiq. Rab. Jewish texts? My answer to this question is a definite yes, because I maintain that the messiah texts in Pesiq. Rab. were created by a darshan as a Jewish response to the contemporary suffering of the Jewish people and as a response to the power that Christianity had attained. The messianic passages in Pesiq. Rab. demonstrate a rejection of the Christian Messiah, while at the same time incorporating certain Christian messianic qualities. Furthermore, the passages are authentic, since they are stylistically similar to other homilies in the work and comply with midrashic hermeneutic conventions.
The most blatant evidence that Pesiq. Rab. represents a Jewish response to Christianity is the figure of Messiah Ephraim, who evinces some messianic attributes similar to the apocalyptic prophet Jesus. The suffering of Messiah EphraimFootnote 44 is the key element reminiscent of the constructs of the Christian messianic figure. The suffering of Messiah Ephraim articulates the hagiographic nature of his representation in Pesiq. Rab. There are only a small number of Jewish historical or haggadic figures of antiquity whose suffering is described in hagiographic detail, such as the martyrdom of Rabbi AqivaFootnote 45 and other rabbis, and the trajectories of their narratives of suffering that are found in the medieval texts of the ten martyrs.Footnote 46 The figure of Messiah Ephraim in Pesiq. Rab. may have been in hypothetical dialogue with the texts or rituals surrounding the passion of the Christian Messiah, i.e., the New Testament gospel accounts and extra-canonical material, and dramatic reenactments of the crucifixion culminating in the passion plays of medieval Christianity.Footnote 47
With respect to the rabbinic engagement with the passion of Jesus, it is significant that the messianic sections of Pesiq. Rab. were in all likelihood further supplemented and edited in medieval Europe. The first attestation of the complete Pesiq. Rab. messianic homilies is the above-mentioned Parma Manuscript (ms 3122, ca. 1270).Footnote 48 We have numerous reports of Jewish responses to Christian theology from this time.Footnote 49 Concurrently, the obsession with the passion of the Christian Messiah had become rampant in Christianity and had anti-Semitic overtones.Footnote 50 Eventually, this led to the creation of the fourteen stages of the cross in Jerusalem, which guided endless streams of pilgrims to locations related to the passion of Jesus.Footnote 51 Although the appearance of Messiah Ephraim in Pesiq. Rab. indicates a rabbinic response to the suffering Messiah in Christianity, we cannot ascertain whether this textual debate is the outcome of a particular historical exchange, since there were multiple encounters between Judaism and Christianity.Footnote 52 Nevertheless, it is my opinion that many of the messianic passages in Pesiq. Rab. became more elaborately expressed around the time of the Parma manuscript. It is probable that the Judaizing of the Christian Messiah was a result of Jews living under Christian dominion, as well as increased anti-Semitism in medieval Europe as discussed above.
A Messianic Midrash on Zech 9:9 in Pesiqta Rabbati 34
Pesiqta Rabbati 34 is a homiletic midrash that describes the messianic age.Footnote 53 It is based upon the Haftarah reading of the fifth Sabbath of Consolation after the Ninth of Av.Footnote 54 The homily is the first in a cluster of messianic homilies in Pesiq. Rab. One of the key verses interpreted in this homily is Zech 9:9: “Rejoice greatly, O daughter of Zion! Shout, O daughter of Jerusalem! Behold, your King is coming to you; He is just and redeemed, afflicted and riding on a donkey, a colt, the offspring of a donkey” (my own translation). This messianic homily is presented in Pesiq. Rab. as an adaptation of events ascribed to the Christian Messiah. The homily seems to propose that the real Messiah is Messiah Ephraim, since the same Scripture texts used by Christians to legitimate Jesus as the Messiah are applied here to Messiah Ephraim. Messiah Ephraim ultimately appears, and Zech 9:9 is read as referring to him. This is one of the prophetic verses used with regard to the Messiah by both Jews and Christians.
The homiletic verse (‘inyan) in Pesiq. Rab. 34:1 is Zech 9:9, and the designation of the homily is: “Rejoice greatly, O daughter of Zion,” 
. This lemma sets the tone for the entire homily that Israel will ultimately rejoice when it experiences redemption through the Messiah. In midrashic fashion, the introductory passage focuses upon one lemma, the rejoicing. In the subsequent passages the homily focuses upon additional lemmata from Zech 9:9.
To facilitate the analysis of the messianic passages in Pesiq. Rab., I have prepared new translations of the relevant texts, since in my view Braude's translationFootnote 55 often deviates from the manuscript text. The text in its most literal translation states:
Pesiq. Rab. 34:8 Just and redeemed is He (Zech 9:9)—[this is] the Messiah who justifies [the] judgment [inflicted upon] him for the sake of Israel, while sitting in the house of affliction [prison]. And if he is called “just” [tsaddiq], why is he called “redeemed [saved]”? Because he justified the judgment [inflicted upon] him because of them [the children of Israel]. He said to them: You are all doomed; nevertheless, you will all be redeemed [saved] through the compassion of the Holy One, blessed be He. Afflicted and riding on a donkey (Zech 9:9)—that is, the Messiah. Why is he called “afflicted”? Because he was afflicted during all those years in prison and because the transgressors of Israel laughed at him [Ps 22:8].Footnote 56Riding on a donkey (Zech 9:9)—because of the transgressors. [Any]one who does not have any merit will go and receive the Merit of the Fathers in God's presence. The Holy One, blessed be He, will shield them through the merit of the Messiah in a straight way, and He will save you, as it is written: They shall come weeping, and with supplications will I lead them; I will make them walk by the rivers of waters in a straight way, where they shall not stumble; for I am a father to Israel, and Ephraim is My firstborn (Jer 31:8).Footnote 57 What does Scripture teach, when it states: “He” (Zech 9:9)? [This means] in the days of the Messiah; “He” [means] in the future world; and there will be no other with him.
This section establishes that a verse utilized by Christians with respect to Jesus was used by Jews to describe the fulfillment of the verse by a messiah named Ephraim. Although the contours of the Messiah suggest that he was perceived as a prophet and/or a king, he was nevertheless humble. What is particularly troubling in the above text is that Ephraim, the firstborn of God, is used in a messianic rabbinic context, although in the Hebrew Bible, Ephraim usually refers to Israel. This interpretation understands Ephraim as an individual rather than the collective Jewish people.
Throughout this passage we may note the extensive reliance upon Zech 9:9, which is here applied to the Jewish Messiah.Footnote 58Pesiqta Rabbati 34:8 thus appears to be a Jewish response to texts concerning the Christian MessiahFootnote 59 and the Christian exegesis of Zech 9:9 in Matthew 21,Footnote 60 where Jesus is viewed as fulfilling this prophecy by riding a donkey into Jerusalem. The midrashic interpretation of the lemma riding on a donkey focuses upon God, the Father, and his firstborn, Ephraim, who in his role as the Messiah will be the leader of the messianic age. This passage clearly refers to the Messiah and asserts that there will be only one true Messiah, namely, Ephraim, and that in the future “there will be no other with him.”Footnote 61
The theological conundrum of emphasizing the importance of Messiah Ephraim without diminishing the greater importance of God is addressed by shifting between the Messiah's and God's role in the redemption of Israel. The darshan skillfully explores the mention of “Father” and “My firstborn” and the ambiguity of “Ephraim” as the Messiah and as the firstborn of Israel, either the firstborn of Joseph or the firstborn of the people of Israel. The preference bestowed upon the biblical Ephraim by Jacob (Israel), who placed his right hand on Ephraim's head when he blessed him (Gen 48:14), was interpreted by the rabbis as Ephraim taking the place of the firstborn son, Manasseh. In Pesiq. Rab., Messiah Ephraim is ultimately placed in the position of being the firstborn of God, based upon Jer 31:8.
Being the “firstborn” of God presumes that the Messiah is the son of God. Referring to savior figures as “God's son” is found in earlier Jewish apocalyptic and extra-biblical texts; for example, 4 Ezra 13:32 refers to a heavenly “man from the sea” as “God's son.” The Dead Sea Scrolls mention the Davidic/royal Messiah and the “son of God” (4Q246), both of which are depicted as warriors. According to Adela Yarbro Collins and John Collins, the phrase “son of God” in the Dead Sea Scrolls does imply a divine father, whereas in the Septuagint the same term is used to refer to a status that was preexistent and angelic.Footnote 62 The idea of the firstborn as a son of God implies that the Messiah in Pesiq. Rab. is accorded a redemptive role that is similar to the role of God. It is possible that the reference to Messiah Ephraim being the “firstborn” of God in Pesiq. Rab. was a response to the divine “sonship” of Jesus, as claimed after his death by his followers.
While the homily refers to Ephraim as the firstborn of God, it also depicts a suffering messiah;Footnote 63 however, the death of this Messiah is not explicitly stated in Pesiq. Rab. The description of the messiah in Pesiq. Rab. 34:8 includes his imprisonment because of the sins of Israel. Messiah Ephraim is redeemed and placed in a position in which he will be the redeemer of the children of Israel.
The midrashic interpretation of the lemma riding on a donkey (Zech 9:9) focuses upon the Messiah who is understood to be a king. In rabbinic thought, the Messiah is the kingFootnote 64 who will redeem Israel and who will be the king at the end of history. God fulfills the promise of establishing a Kingdom of God through his Messiah, the “firstborn” of God in Pesiq. Rab. This shows a further development of Jewish messianism; a descendant of Joseph will be Messiah Ephraim and the “firstborn” of God.
This Jewish response to the Christian appropriation of the Hebrew Bible, especially of Zech 9:9, is also visible in medieval Jewish art. For example, the Golden Haggadah from Barcelona (ca. 1320, London, British Library, Add. 27210, fol. 10v) depicts the wife of Moses—Zipporah—and their children riding on a donkey. While they are on their way to Egypt, Moses encounters his brother Aaron. Riding a donkey may have been viewed as a Christian tropeFootnote 65 that elicited several Jewish responses. The depiction in the Golden Haggadah could have been a Jewish response to the Christian narrative of the child Jesus fleeing to Egypt to save his life from the decree of Herod (Matt 2:13–14).Footnote 66 The Jewish image in the Golden Haggadah portrays Moses leaving Midian (Exod 4:20); perhaps this image was intended to remind the viewers that Zipporah and the children of Moses were riding on a donkey, emphasizing that this was an image in Judaism as well. The motif of riding on a donkey would have immediately brought to mind the Christian application of Zech 9:9, i.e., the triumphal entrance of Jesus to Jerusalem on a donkey.Footnote 67 Generally, Jews in the Middle Ages knew a great deal about Christian beliefs and rituals;Footnote 68 thus, the Golden Haggadah as well as Pesiq. Rab. may have been responses to the donkey trope in Christianity. It is apparent that the darshan in Pesiq. Rab. criticized the Christian interpretation of the famous lemma riding on a donkey. The darshan presents a “Judaized” interpretation of the same lemma. Such divergent interpretations may be viewed as a textualized sign of discourse between Judaism and Christianity.Footnote 69 Nevertheless, there appears to be some consensus of interpretation from a Jewish and Christian perspective with respect to the character of the Messiah; based upon Zech 9:9, both the Jewish Messiah and the Christian Messiah were perceived to be “humble,” since in both traditions he was imagined as riding on a donkey.
The Mourners for Zion, Followers of the Messiah
One of the contours of a messiah is the presence of followers or disciples, a group that accepts a messianic figure and disseminates his teachings and his message. Pesiqta Rabbati 34 also contains passages concerning a group of messianic followers known as the Mourners for Zion, Aveley Tsion, a phrase mentioned in Isa 61:3. One of the critical religious goals of the group known as Aveley Tsion was to act out their interpretation of Isa 61:1–4, which they took literally and applied to themselves. Pesiqta Rabbati 34 contains a few details about the relationship between a charismatic messiah and his followers. Messiah Ephraim in Pesiq. Rab. appears in response to the prayers of the Aveley Tsion.Footnote 70
In this homily, the people of Israel are divided into two groups: the Aveley Tsion, who will bring the Messiah to Israel; and those who mock the Aveley Tsion. This inner-Jewish division is strangely reminiscent of the rift between the followers of Jesus and those who remained Jewish and rejected that figure in the first century c.e. However, in this homily it is Messiah Ephraim who is accepted by some Jews and rejected by others. The Mourners for Zion will not be harmed by the fierce actions of angels of destruction while they wait for the Messiah. The scene in this homily is dramatic, almost theatrical,Footnote 71 thus showing some similarities to the performance of the Christian passion. Pesiqta Rabbati 34:2 states in part: “The Mourners for Zion suffered great distress in Israel because [the children of Israel] mocked and scorned them.” In the Jewish context, messiahs have been able to attract followers in their quest to overcome threats to the survival of Judaism and to provide a plan for the redemption of Israel. From the perspective of messianic theory, the group Aveley Tsion would represent the followers of a Jewish messiah.Footnote 72
Additionally, the Aveley Tsion provided a strong reminder of the destruction of the temple, the remembrance of which is the liturgical occasion of the homily, Pesiq. Rab. 34. God suffers with Israel, and the Aveley Tsion are co-sufferers with God, while the Messiah willingly accepts the suffering ordained for him by God. In the theological perspective of the darshan, suffering was apparently necessary for those Jews who were not part of the Aveley Tsion in order for them to comprehend that salvation was imminent and that the End of Days was approaching; this is described in passages that have some apocalyptic tropes. Moreover, this passage in Pesiq. Rab. could reflect an apocalyptic position that emphasizes that no forces of “evil” would remain.Footnote 73 In Pesiq. Rab. 34 the suffering of Israel is caused by the scornful behavior of those who reject the Aveley Tsion. As the passage set forth below indicates, those rejecting the Jewish Messiah will be punished:
Pesiq. Rab. 34:3
But when [the children of Israel who mocked the Mourners for Zion] see the afflictions decreed for the year immediately preceding that year in which the Messiah will be revealed to them, and when the afflictions follow one upon another without ceasing, then at last they will understand and they will say: In our lifetime there were no such [afflictions]. During Nisan on the eve of the seven-year period, a wind will come forth from the West, and snow will come down from heaven and smite all the seed [of the fields]. And afterwards, month after month, evil things will begin to happen and will double their degree of evil. After this [the mockers] will understand and say: Surely, here is an indication of the king Messiah. Even then their conviction will not be certain until the seven-year period, in which they will be [so] punished that they will have faces as black as the rims of a pot. And with what will they be punished? With famine, since Israel's stubbornness can only be broken through famine.
The seven-year period mentioned above refers to the time of suffering before the arrival of the Messiah. The number seven typically occurs in both Jewish and Christian apocalyptic and messianic passages.Footnote 74
A Homiletic Midrash on “Rejoicing” in Pesiqta Rabbati 35
The messianic age in Judaism is usually announced by Elijah, as illustrated in Pesiq. Rab. 35:8–9. In the first printed edition of Pesiq. Rab., the lemma Sing and rejoice (יחמשו ינר, Zech 2:14) is applied to the ultimate experience of rejoicing, the arrival of the Messiah. However, the Parma manuscript refers to Isa 54:1, which also mentions rejoicing; this passage from Isaiah is more closely related to the barrenness of the land of Israel that is mentioned in the homily. Pesiqta Rabbati 35 utilizes well-known messianic tropes, such as Elijah, who will come three days before the arrival of the Messiah, standing on the mountains of Israel. According to this homily, Elijah will announce separate messages on each of the three days: on the first day he will announce world peace (Nah 2:1); on the second day he will announce that goodness has come (Isa 52:7); on the third day he will announce that salvation will arrive (Isa 52:7). Peace, goodness, and salvation are not for the purported “wicked,” however, but for Zion, based upon Isa 52:7. God will reveal his glory and his kingship and will bring salvation to Israel. The darshan then cites Mic 2:13: the Messiah will be the king, and the Lord will lead his people. This passage maps the separate roles of the Messiah and God, which is a major component in Judaizing the Messiah. With regard to the issue of kingship, Jesus was also a royal messiah, since his baptism (Matt 3:16; Mark 1:13–14, 16; Luke 3:16, 21; John 1:31) situated him in the tradition of anointed kings. In Pesiq. Rab., the kingship of the Messiah indicates a conflation of the Davidic and the Ephraimite Messiah. By the twelfth century, when Pesiq. Rab. was first cited as a work, as elaborated above, the Ephraimite Messiah had evolved from any vestiges of being a warrior messiahFootnote 75 into a royal messiah. A definitive shift to royal messianic qualities of ben Joseph occurred somewhere between the eighth to thirteenth centuries; however, this shift could also point to a conflation or combination of warrior and king motifs.
Pesiq. Rab. 35:8 Sing, O barren (Isa 54:1). {ed. pr.: Sing and rejoice (Zech 2:14).} When will this be fulfilled? At the hour when the Holy One, {ed. pr.: blessed be He} redeems Israel. Shmu'el said: Three days before the Messiah comes, Elijah will come and stand on the mountains of Israel and weep and lament regarding them. And he [Elijah] will say: See, O Land of Israel, until when will you be a wasteland, dry and desolate? And his voice will be heard from one end of the world to the other. And afterwards he will say to the children of Israel: Peace has come to the world. Peace has come to the world, as it is said: Behold upon the mountains the feet of him who brings good tidings, who announces peace! (Nah 2:1).
Pesiq. Rab. 35:9
When the wicked hear this, they will all rejoice and they will all say to one another: Peace has come to us. On the second day Elijah will come and stand on the mountains of Israel, and say: Goodness has come to the world, as it is said: who brings peace,Footnote 76good tidings (Isa 52:7). On the third day he will come and say: Salvation has come to the world, {ed. pr.: as it is said: who announces salvation (ibid.)} but when he sees that the wicked are saying, this is [for them] too, he says to Zion, Your God reigns (ibid.). This is to teach you: to Zion and her children has salvation come and not to the wicked. At the same hour the Holy One will show His kingship and His glory to all the inhabitants of the world and He will redeem Israel and He will rise at the head of them, as it is said: He who opens the breach will go up before them; they will break in and pass through the gate, and go out by it; and their king shall pass before them, and the Lord at their head (Mic 2:13). End.
One purpose of the Jewish Messiah, according to Lenowitz, is to guard against an existential threat: “When they feel the time is right, when a segment of Jewish society feels a rising existential threat, messiahs . . . emerge to lead those who can see only an unacceptable present and an impossible future.”Footnote 77 In Pesiq. Rab., the darshan appears to express this existential threat by referring to war, famine, and destruction as a result of actions taken by God, as well as foreign nations, when he refers to the imminent coming of the Messiah. Catastrophic events, such as the three cited above, would precede the advent of the Messiah.
The Suffering of Messiah Ephraim: A Homiletic Midrash on Isa 60:1 in Pesiqta Rabbati 36
One of the contours of a messianic figure is physical suffering and a violent or noble death at the hand of the government. Messiah Ephraim clearly undergoes tremendous physical suffering; however, his death is not explicitly stated in Pesiq. Rab. This messiah is a forerunner, a precursor to the End of Days, with a role in the coming eschatological drama. The homily in Pesiq. Rab. 36 is concerned with the salvation of Israel brought about by the Messiah. The homiletic verse for the entire passage is Isa 60:1: Arise, shine forth, your light has come. This homily is based upon the Haftarah reading for the sixth Sabbath of Consolation. The homily starts with a reference to King David, who speaks in the Holy Spirit; God is manifesting himself through David's words. This identifies David as a prophetic figure, who states what is to become of Israel. The suffering in Pesiq. Rab. 36 is more extensive than the suffering described in Pesiq. Rab. 34, and the text explicitly mentions that Messiah Ephraim accepts his torture for the sins of Israel.Footnote 78 The torture includes the imposition of an iron yoke; his eyes will grow dim and he will be choked. In this homily, God predicts the suffering of the Messiah, with a reference to Psalm 22. During his suffering, Messiah Ephraim cites from the same psalm that was supposedly uttered by Jesus on the cross.Footnote 79
Pesiq. Rab. 36:4 [The Holy One, blessed be He,] began to talk about the terms with him [Messiah Ephraim], saying to him: In the future the sins of those that have been hidden with you will bring you under an iron yoke. They will make you like a calf whose eyes grow dim; and they will choke your spirit with [your] yoke; and because of their sins your tongue will stick to the roof of your mouth (Ps 22:16). Are you willing [to endure] this? The Messiah said in [God's] Presence: Will this suffering [last] for many years?
The Holy One said to him: By your life and the life of My head! I have decreed for you a week [seven years]. If your soul is saddened, I will immediately banish them [the sinful souls hidden with you under the Throne of God]. [The Messiah] said in His presence: Master of the universe, I will take this upon myself with a joyful soul and a glad heart, provided that not one [person] in Israel perish; not only those who are alive should be saved in my days, but also those who are dead, who have died since [the days] of the first human being up until now should be saved [at the time of salvation] in my days {ed. pr.: but also the aborted ones}; [including] those whom You thought to create, but who were not yet created. Such [are the things] I desire, and for this I am ready to take [all this] upon myself. {ed. pr.: At the same time, the Holy One blessed be He, will appoint for the Messiah the four creatures who will carry the Messiah's throne of glory.}
The above text commences with: “In the future the sins of those that have been hidden with you will bring you under an iron yoke.” Thus, Messiah Ephraim will suffer for the sins of others and in doing so will atone for Israel.Footnote 80 Also, all “souls” will be saved. The inequities of humanity will cause Ephraim's tongue to cleave to the roof of his mouth, as in Ps 22:16. The text continues:
Pesiq. Rab. 36:6
During the week [seven year period] when [Ephraim]Footnote 81 comes, they will bring iron beams and they will put them on his neck until the Messiah's body is bent. He will scream and weep and his voice will rise up to the height [of heaven]. He will say in His presence: Master of the universe, how much can my limbs endure? How much my spirit? Am I not but flesh and blood? It was this moment that David lamented, saying: My strength is dried up like a potsherd (Ps 22:16). In that hour the Holy One says to them {ed. pr.: him}: Ephraim, My righteous Messiah, You have already accepted [this suffering] since the six days of Creation. Now your suffering is like My suffering, since the day on which wicked Nebuchadnezzar destroyed My Temple and burnt My sanctuary, and exiled My children among the nations of the world. By your life and by the life of My head! I have not sat on My Throne. And if you do not believe, see the dew that is upon My head, My head is filled with dew (Cant 5:2). In that hour, [the Messiah] will say in His presence: Master of the universe, now my mind is at rest, for it is sufficient for the servant to be like his Master. Rabbi Levi said: In that hour when the Holy One says to the congregation of Israel: Arise, shine for your light is come (Isa 60:1), [Israel will] say: Master of the universe, in the future You lead us. At that hour the Holy One will turn around and acknowledge [this point] and say to her [Israel]: My daughter, you spoke well, as it is said: My beloved speaks and says to me, [Arise, my love, my beautiful one, and come away] (Cant 2:10).
The above passage emphasizes the suffering of Ephraim; his suffering was determined at the time of creation. Psalm 22:16 is used as a prooftext when the Messiah complains about his suffering; he is comforted by God. Canticles 5:2 mentions “dew” on God's head, which in rabbinic texts usually indicates resurrection.Footnote 82 Fishbane sets forth various explanations with respect to the suffering Messiah in Pesiq. Rab., including the following: Ephraim, son of Joseph, could be viewed as a Christian figure; Messiah Ephraim disconnects Messiah ben David from his suffering at the time of the End of Days; there is a possible correlation between Jeremiah 31 (the restoration of Ephraim) and Isaiah 53 (the redemptive suffering of the servant of the Lord).Footnote 83
In my view, still another explanation could be that the suffering Messiah Ephraim was created by the darshan of Pesiq. Rab. based upon previous Jewish and Christian sources as a response to the contemporary suffering of the Jewish people. As stated in both Pesiq. Rab. 34 and 36, the Messiah will be tortured. Pesiqta Rabbati applies the terms “iron yoke” and “iron beams” to refer to the cruel power of the government to torture the Messiah. Additionally, the term “iron beam” would differentiate Messiah Ephraim from Jesus, who died on wooden “beams.”Footnote 84 The texts in Pesiq. Rab. provide a distinctly different fate for the Jewish Messiah, i.e., torture and iron yokes. Crucifixion as punishment by the state is mentioned in Pesiq. Rab. 31:6.Footnote 85 Although Messiah Ephraim was tortured, the text does not mention that he was crucified, nor does it mention that he died. However, in a pre-Christian text known as the “Gabriel Revelation,” an earlier version of a messiah figure with a possible connection to the figure of Ephraim, the Messiah ben Joseph, and Jesus, is revealed to die in battle and to be resurrected three days after his death.Footnote 86 This text raises the possibility that prior to the birth of Jesus, some Jews conceived of a Jewish messiah who was resurrected three days after his death in battle. This text contributes to the multiple views of the Messiah in Judaism. There is no consistency in Jewish messianism as to the contours of the Messiah; only incomplete trajectories can be detected. There was a shift in Jewish messianism after Jesus, since the Jewish messianic figures became more complex and refined, and, as explained above, at least one Jewish messiah was partially modeled upon Jesus.
One of the sources of Pesiq. Rab., 2 Baruch,Footnote 87 does not depict the death of the “Anointed One” (the Messiah); rather, he is gradually revealed in the text and he transits into the eternal kingdom of God (2 Bar. 29–30). Second Baruch was in all likelihood written shortly after the destruction of the second temple (first century c.e.). It is probable that the editor of Pesiq. Rab. had access to 2 Baruch, since entire sections of Pesiq. Rab. are based upon 2 Baruch. Therefore, the concept of a messiah who does not die in Pesiq. Rab. could have derived from 2 Baruch. This transfer could have transpired in the fifth century when the consolation homilies concerning the destruction of the second temple were formulated. In Pesiq. Rab., the survival of Ephraim indicates a major development in Jewish messianism: Messiah Ephraim, unlike the previous Jewish Messiah described in the Gabriel Revelation, neither dies in battle nor from torture.
Ephraim, a son of the patriarch Joseph,Footnote 88 was blessed by Jacob before his brother Manasseh (Gen 48:14). In midrash the elevation of Ephraim follows the “syndrome of the second son” in the Hebrew Bible; the second son frequently became the inheritor and thus the “chosen son.” The “chosen son” motif was interpreted in Judaism to mean that Israel was elected among the nations to carry the yoke of fulfilling God's commandments. It is not coincidental that a Jewish messiah was viewed as the son of Joseph, since Jesus on one level was also a son of Joseph, the husband of Mary. One may speculate that naming a Jewish messiah Ephraim, who is the son of Joseph, is a further response to Christianity. Ephraim as a messianic figure in Pesiq. Rab. was, by way of midrashic interpretation, viewed in the role of the “dear son,” an idea that establishes a modified messianic figure in Judaism. This modification includes the transformation from a warrior to a suffering messiah, who is called “dear son,” which implies he is pitied by God for his suffering. Whereas the “second son” in the Hebrew Bible is usually the son who continues the genealogical line, the “dear son” is viewed as elevated by God, who raises him up to heaven.
The messianic passages in Pesiq. Rab. 36 are a reflection on the verse, “you are the fountain of life” (Ps 36:10), which implies the resurrection of the dead.
Pesiq. Rab. 36:2
What is the meaning of in Your light do we see light? [Ps 36:10] What light is the congregation of Israel contemplating? It is the light of the Messiah, since it is said: And God saw the light that it was good (Gen 1:14). This teaches that the Holy One, Blessed be He, contemplated the Messiah {ed. pr.: and} his works before the world was created and He concealed the Messiah and [the moment in time] of his generation under His throne.
This messianic portrait presents the Messiah as God's light. Nevertheless, this light is hidden until the end of time. This homily elicits statements of faith: the followers of the Messiah are required to believe in the light that shines for Israel.Footnote 89
Pesiq. Rab. 36:9 (excerpt) Our Masters taught: At the hour when {ed. pr.: the king Messiah appears,} he comes and stands on the roof of the Temple and will make a proclamation to Israel and he says: Meek ones, the day of your redemption has come. And if you do not believe me, see His light which shines upon you, as it is said: Arise, shine; for your light has come,[and the glory of the Lord has risen upon you] (Isa 60:1). And it has shone only upon you and not upon the nations of the world, as it is said: For, behold, darkness shall cover the earth, and gross darkness the peoples; [but upon you the Lord will arise, and His glory shall be seen upon you] (Isa 60:2).
The above passage concerning the Messiah in Pesiq. Rab. 36:9 may include Tannaitic material, tanu rabbanan, “Our Masters taught,” which at first impression would place this passage (ca. second century c.e.) in close proximity to other messianic figures, including Jesus. However, this unique passage could be understood as “pseudo-Tannaitic,” since it is not found in the extant Tannaitic texts. In this case the darshan could have been making a new statement, which he presents as being part of the rabbinic tradition. After victory in an apocalyptic battle, the Messiah is depicted as standing on the roof of the temple (Pesiq. Rab. 36:9). In Matt 4:5 it is the devil who places Jesus on the pinnacle of the temple; Pesiq. Rab. 36:9 may reflect a process in which an element of another culture is incorporated, but changed. The Messiah on the roof of the temple in the Pesiq. Rab. passage could be a response to the apocalyptic forces of evil. Although Messiah Ephraim was not a fighter and did not participate in the battle, he appears and assumes the pose of a victor over the forces of evil by standing on the roof of the temple. It is a perplexing passage,Footnote 90 and we do not know the actual significance of the roof mentioned. Is it the roof of the temple before the destruction? Is it the roof of a future, rebuilt temple? Is it the area of the destroyed temple where the roof would have been? This is one of the most difficult messianic passages in Pesiq. Rab.; it is indeterminate whether this passage reflects thoughts existing prior to the destruction of the second temple (70 c.e.) or whether it implies that the destroyed temple will be rebuilt when the Messiah comes. It is significant that the Messiah is depicted as standing on the roof of the temple, which is an elevated location at the center of Jerusalem. This is the location where the Divine Presence (Shekhinah) dwelled, and in Pesiq. Rab. it is the location where the messianic age and redemption will commence. The fundamental narrative in this homily possibly presents Tannaitic material and engages biblical prophecies from Isaiah. Israel is addressed as “meek ones,” which may be an allusion to the Sermon on the Mount (Matt 5:2–10).Footnote 91
Two of the contours of a messiah are a miraculous birth and a special relationship with the Divine. In Pesiq. Rab. the birth of Messiah Ephraim is not mentioned in detail, but he does have a “miraculous” origin in heaven and a very close relationship with God. If Pesiq. Rab. 36 is read as hagiography, it is evident that prior to creation, God contemplated the Messiah and his acts in heaven and on earth. In another section of Pesiq. Rab. there may be an allusion to the birth of a Jewish messiah;Footnote 92 however, throughout this entire midrashic text there is no discussion of the childhood of the Messiah. As an aside, it should be noted that in the canonical gospels there are only a few references to the childhood development of Jesus: his circumcision (Luke 2:21), a short reference to growing up in Nazareth (Matt 2:22–23; Luke 2:40), and visiting the temple (Luke 2:39–52). In Pesiq. Rab. the Messiah does not experience a formal induction into the covenant of Abraham (such as circumcision). Furthermore, there is no narrative in which the Messiah himself creates an inner group of disciples as proponents of his teachings. The Mourners of Zion mentioned previously were not recruited by Messiah Ephraim; rather, these followers wait for him. The pre-existence of the Messiah, prior to creation, points to a definitive relationship with the Divine; this relationship gives the Messiah a status similar to that of Moses, who according to a midrashic text also came into existence prior to the creation of the world (Pesiq. Rab. 15:10).Footnote 93
The deliberate omission of a birth story and a family history releases Messiah Ephraim from Christian messianic connotations; nevertheless, the weight of his unique relationship with the Divine elevates him. God is portrayed as having a dialogue with the Messiah in which the Messiah is presented with a choice as to whether or not to suffer for the sins of the souls hidden under the throne of God and grant them everlasting life (see Pesiq. Rab. 36:4, above).Footnote 94
To summarize, Pesiq. Rab. 36 includes important details of Messiah Ephraim's biography, which is to some extent reminiscent of Jesus (John 1:1–2): mainly that the Messiah was created by God before the creation of the worldFootnote 95 and that he had a dialogue with God. As mentioned above, many passages in Pesiq. Rab. may be construed as a messianic discourse between Jewish and Christian texts. Pesiqta Rabbati responds to Christian and apocalyptic tropes by presenting the transformation from a heavenly messiah to an earthly messiah, who will return to heaven and eventually will descend to earth again at the time of the final judgment.
Apocalyptic Contours of Messiah Ephraim
Messiah Ephraim combines elements of apocalypticism and this-worldliness. He will appear after apocalyptic events, such as at the time of suffering of the people of Israel and the battles of angels fighting the wicked and the nonbelievers. He will restore Israel to its land and bring universal peace. In comparison to other Jewish apocalyptic texts, Messiah Ephraim in Pesiq. Rab. does not lead an armed revolt as an act of national redemption.Footnote 96 Unlike some other messiah figures, Ephraim does not play a significant role in the Galilee. (Similar to the ministry of Jesus that unfolded in the Galilean landscape, some Jewish messianic figures were also active in Galilee, e.g., Menahem ben Yehudah Ha-Gelili, John of Giscala, and Judas the Galilean.) The earthly actions of Messiah Ephraim transpire exclusively in Jerusalem. His task is to redeem Israel; his deeds are anchored in biblical lemmata.
One of the apocalyptic aspects of Messiah Ephraim is his future destruction of Satan; in Pesiq. Rab. the Messiah will throw Satan into Gehinnom (“hell”).Footnote 97
Pesiq. Rab. 36:2
Satan said in the presence of the Holy One: Master of the universe, [for whom is the light] which is concealed under Your Throne?
[God] said to him: For him who will turn you back and put you to shame.
Satan said in His presence: Master of the universe, show him to me.
[God] said: Come and see him. And when he saw him [Messiah Ephraim], Satan was shaken, and he fell upon his face and said: Surely, this is the Messiah who in the future will fling me and all the princes of the nations of the world into hell, as it is said: He will swallow up death forever; and the Lord God will wipe away [tears from off all faces] (Isa 25:8).
There are dialogues in Pesiq. Rab. between God and the angels of the nations, as well as dialogues between God and Satan concerning the Messiah. Satan asks a series of questions in regard to the prospective tasks of the Messiah. This construction allows the darshan to implement his version of the Jewish Messiah as a response to the Christian Messiah. The question and response format probably suggests an ongoing polemic between the two groups.
The Righteousness of the Messiah in Pesiqta Rabbati 37
Two of the contours of the Messiah include physical suffering and reappearance. Both of these contours are satisfied in Pesiq. Rab. 37, Rejoicing I will rejoice (Isa 61:10),שישא שוש, which contains repetitive, almost liturgical, benedictions. This homily is based upon the Haftarah for the seventh Sabbath of Consolation. The Messiah is named Ephraim and וניקדצ חישמ, which could be understood as “Our True Messiah” or “Messiah of Righteousness”; this Hebrew phrase appears in Pesiq. Rab. and in the liturgy.Footnote 98 In rabbinic literature, the phrase וניקדצ חישמ is only found in Pesiq. Rab. and in texts related to this work.Footnote 99 In Pesiq. Rab. 37 Ephraim is referred to as the true Messiah, which connects him to the concept of triumph over the nations. Ephraim will be the true Messiah that will judge and redeem Israel and the other nations of the world. This passage could be viewed as a reaction to the concept of the Christian Messiah. The date mentioned in Pesiq. Rab. 37:2 is Nisan; the Fifteenth of Nisan is erev pesaḥ, the feast of redemption from Egypt. According to the Gospel of John,Footnote 100 this is the day when Jesus was crucified. A psalm of suffering (Psalm 22)Footnote 101 is applied to the Messiah's passion in Pesiq. Rab. in the following passage. We may have a rhetoric of redemption here.Footnote 102
Pesiq. Rab. 37:2
This teaches that in the future, in the month of Nisan, the Fathers of the World [patriarchs] will arise and say to him: Ephraim, our righteous Messiah! Even though we are your fathers, you are greater than we are, because you suffered [for] the iniquities of our children and terrible ordeals came upon you, such as did not come upon earlier [generations] or later ones. For the sake of Israel you [experienced] anguish, derision, and mockery among the nations of the world [Ps 22:7–8]. You sat in darkness (Micah 7:8) and gloominess, and your eyes saw no light, and your skin cleaved to your bones [Ps 22:18], and your body was as dry as a piece of wood; and your eyes did not see light, and your skin is shriveled on your bones (Lam 4:8) [Ps 22:18], and your body was dried up like wood and your eyes grew dim from fasting—your strength is dried up like a potsherd (Ps 22:16)—all these [afflictions happened] on account of the iniquities of our children. It is your will [to benefit] your children through that goodness, which the Holy One will bestow upon Israel. It may be because of the utmost anguish, which you did suffer on their account in prison, that your mind is displeased with them. He [Ephraim] said to them: Fathers of the World, all that I have done I have done only for your sake and for the sake of your children and for your honor and the honor of your children that they will benefit from the goodness which the Holy One will bestow upon Israel. They said: Ephraim, our righteous Messiah! May your mind be at rest, since you put to rest the mind of your Creator and our minds.
This midrashic passage follows the inscribed narrative of Psalm 22, a progression of abandonment, threat, suffering, and divinely initiated restoration. This psalm, therefore, provides the matrix of the messianic narrative in this rabbinic homily; similar to the New Testament passion, the rabbinic Messiah narrative is anchored in Scripture. In the Hebrew Bible, Psalm 22 is a psalm of lament in the first person singular that voices this persona's claim of being abandoned by God while seeking a divine response. This psalm is a composition that dramatizes the speaker's suffering.Footnote 103 The speaker, who is understood to be King David, expresses his feelings of abandonment as he recounts the times that God had listened and intervened on behalf of his ancestors; he is grieved that God is not listening to him or to Israel. The individual cited in this psalm has been identified in several different ways, and this transformation and its re-referencing opens the lemmata in the psalm to personal, communal, and liturgical usage.Footnote 104 Psalm 22 became the preferred focus of Christian fulfillment interpretation in regard to the dying Christian Messiah, while in Judaism the single lemmata from the psalm began to be viewed as having the potential to relate to salvation, culminating in describing the affliction of a Jewish messiah.
In Pesiq. Rab. 37:3, Messiah Ephraim is prepared for his mission and dressed in garments of light by God. The Messiah is taken up to heaven and prepared for his reappearance on earth at which time he will endure suffering. It should be noted that Messiah Ephraim does not explicitly experience death prior to his second ascension to heaven, nor is he resurrected. God raises him up to heaven both before and after his suffering on earth. Ephraim is represented as the “dear son” of God, whereas Pesiq. Rab. 34:8 refers to Ephraim as the firstborn son of God. It is significant that these homilies present a suffering messiah who is like a son to God, obviously “a special relationship to the Divine.”
Pesiq. Rab. 37:3
R. Simeon b. Pazzi said: In that hour the Holy One will raise the Messiah up to the heaven of heavens, and will shroud him in [something] of His splendor because of the nations of the world, because of the wicked Persians. He [God] said to him: Ephraim, My true Messiah, be the judge of these and do with them as your soul desires, for the nations would long have been destroyed by you in an instant had not My mercies been exceedingly mighty on your behalf, as it is said: Is Ephraim My dear son? Is he a darling child? [For whenever I speak of him, I earnestly remember him still; therefore My inward parts are troubled for him; in mercy I will have mercy upon him, says the Lord] (Jer 31:20).
The suffering of the Messiah is described in the following passage in which it is stated that God will extend mercy to him. A continuation of the application of Psalm 22 to Messiah Ephraim is also found in this passage:
Pesiq Rab. 37:4
[Why does the verse mention] twice mercy: In mercy I will have mercy upon him (Jer 31:20)? One “mercy” refers to the hour when he is in prison, since the nations of the world will gnash their teeth, wink their eyes, nod their heads, open their lips, as it is said: All those who see me mock me; they move the lip, they shake their head (Ps 22:8). {ed. pr.: My strength is dried up like a potsherd; and my tongue cleaves to my jaws; and you lay me down in the dust of death (Ps 22:16).} They roar at him like lions and fancy devouring him [Ps 22:14], as it is said: All our enemies have opened their mouths against us (Lam 3:46).{ed. pr.: A predatory and roaring lion (Ezek 22:25). I am poured out like water, and all my bones are out of joint; my heart is like wax; it is melted in the midst of my bowels (Ps 22:15). And they roar at him like lions and fancy devouring him [Ps 22:14], as it is said: All our enemies have opened their mouths against us. Fear and the pit have come upon us, desolation and destruction (Lam 3:46–47).}
In mercy will I have mercy upon him (Jer 31:20)—[referring to the second “mercy”] the hour when he [Ephraim] leaves the prison, since the nations of the world will despise him. There is not one kingdom or two or three kingdoms that will come upon him, but one hundred and forty kingdoms will encompass him. The Holy One will say to him: Ephraim, Messiah of My righteousness, do not be afraid of them, because all of them will die from the breath of your mouth, as it is said: and with the breath of his lips shall he slay the wicked (Isa 11:4).
In the above text the Messiah is released from prison and attacked by one hundred and forty kingdoms. However, his very breath will slay them.Footnote 105 In contrast, when Jesus carried his cross through Jerusalem to his crucifixion, he did not destroy those who mocked him (John 19:16–18).
The suffering Messiah is also part of the homily in Pesiq. Rab. 31, which presents Isa 49:8–13 as a key biblical passage concerning the Messiah. The afflictions of the Messiah will ultimately cease; God will recreate the Messiah and through the Messiah, God will reaffirm his covenant with the House of David.
Pesiq. Rab. 31:26–27
What is [the meaning of] I will fashion you (Isa 49:8)? Our rabbis said: One could endlessly recite the suffering [of the Messiah] in every generation. At the same time, the Holy One will say: I will create him as a new being, and the Messiah will no longer be afflicted, I will fashion you and give you [as a covenant to the people] (ibid.).
Salvation and Resurrection
The promise of salvation and the resurrection of the dead represent another contour of a messiah. The messianic passages in Pesiq. Rab. highlight shorter narratives that refer to the suffering of the Messiah, as well as his role in resurrectionFootnote 106 and redemption. The righteous who are buried in the Diaspora will return to the land of Israel through tunnels and will be resurrected when the Messiah arrives,Footnote 107 as in the following text:
Pesiq. Rab. 1:15
And if this is so, will the righteous who were buried outside the Land [of Israel] be disadvantaged [concerning resurrection]? No. R. Eleazar in the name of R. Simai said, God will make tunnels in the ground and they will roll like leather containers, and they will come to the Land of Israel. When they come to the Land of Israel, the Holy One {ed. pr.: God} will give them their breath, Thus said God the Lord, He who created the heavens, and stretched them out, etc. He who gives breath to the people upon it (Isa 42:5). And you have full Scripture [for this], since the prophet Ezekiel says: And you shall know that I am the Lord, when I have opened your graves (Ezek 37:13), and I will cause you to come up out of your graves, and bring you to the earth {ed. pr.: of Israel} (Ezek 37:12). In that hour, I will put My spirit in you, and you shall live (Ezek 37:14). You learn {ed. pr.: I learn} that in the days of the Messiah the dead of the Land of Israel [will be] living; and that the righteous outside the Land will come to it and will be living on the [Land].
Conclusion
The messianic homilies in Pesiq. Rab. contain striking responses to Christian views of the Messiah. A major premise of this article is that the unique character of the messianic passages in Pesiq. Rab. is based to some extent upon the life of Jesus as portrayed in Christian Scriptures. The depiction of Messiah Ephraim in the consolation homilies in Pesiq. Rab. is constructed in midrashic interpretations of biblical passages, which he will fulfill. This mode of interpretation responds to the Christian view that Jesus was the only messianic figure who suffered in order to bring salvation to the righteous. This rabbinic text demonstrates that there will be a Jewish messiah who fulfills a similar paradigm. The model utilized in the analysis of the suffering Messiah is derived from contours of messianic figures. In respect to the eleven contours of a messianic figure listed above,Footnote 108 Messiah Ephraim as presented in Pesiq. Rab. had the following partial or complete contours: the messianic figure as a teacher, prophet, and/or king; followers or disciples; physical suffering; reappearance; promise of salvation and the resurrection of the dead; a special relationship to the Deity.
The messianic portrait in Pesiq. Rab. presents the Messiah as God's light, which is hidden until the End of Days, when it will shine for Israel. The messianic narratives in Pesiq. Rab. evolve as a tale told by a darshan (a homilist) about the Messiah. Pesiqta Rabbati includes a detailed description of the Messiah's suffering and the tasks he will fulfill at the End of Days. Messiah Ephraim in Pesiq. Rab. will redeem Israel. His deeds are anchored in biblical lemmata, which he will fulfill. The passages in Pesiq. Rab. describe messianic events that were viewed as imminent. Israel in Pesiq. Rab. transcends the notion of a collective peoplehood by becoming a nation of individual true believers in the Messiah.Footnote 109
The Pesiq. Rab. messianic texts are so-called ruaḥ ha-qodesh homilies, in which scriptural verses are explained by the Holy Spirit that rests upon a prophet. The hagiography of the Messiah is brief; however, each homiletic narrative displays the influence of the preceding homilies in Pesiq. Rab. The narratives are not isolated from each other; rather, they are a series of texts that move forward in time. The hagiographic character of the Messiah in Pesiq. Rab. is repeatedly demonstrated by the description of the preexistence of Messiah Ephraim in the heavenly realm; it also includes his acceptance of suffering for the sins of Israel, his special relationship with God, the righteousness of Messiah Ephraim, the relationship to his followers and to those rejecting and mocking him, and his specific role in salvation. Messiahs have an intimate relationship with the Divine; they have supernatural attributes and tendencies of self-sacrifice and self-destruction. The detailed suffering of Messiah Ephraim in Pesiq. Rab. may have been borrowed from Christianity and integrated into rabbinic concepts of the Messiah. A major difference between the Christian Messiah and Messiah Ephraim in Pesiq. Rab. is the absence of the death and resurrection of Messiah Ephraim in Pesiq. Rab. Messiah Ephraim will reappear at the End of Days; however, Pesiq. Rab. does not state that he died as a result of his suffering, nor does the text state that he was resurrected.
The similarities between Messiah Ephraim and Jesus include the following: a special relationship to the Deity; being the son of Joseph; riding on a donkey; being humble; addressing the meek; being mocked; physically suffering for the sins of others; having followers; returning from heaven to earth to judge humanity; representing the kingship of the Messiah; reappearance on earth; promise of salvation; and the resurrection of the dead.
The differences between Messiah Ephraim and Jesus include the following: Messiah Ephraim is created in heaven by God, and not as a result of a miraculous birth; his childhood is not described; he has no presence in the Galilee; he does not select his disciples, rather his followers are awaiting him; he does not create new laws; he is not crucified; he does not die, nor is he resurrected.
Pesiqta Rabbati contains a rabbinic attempt to write a messianology with a hagiographic character that was not doctrinal. In its conception of a messiah, Christianity was influenced by Judaism; similarly, Christian thought and belief influenced Judaism, in particular in the revision and development of messianic figures.
