History and context

The Baths of Regio VII, or ‘Office Baths’ as they are also known, were uncovered in 1923 by Renato Bartoccini, having been discovered during the digging of foundations for new excavation offices in the southwest (Figure 1; Bartoccini 1924–Reference Bartoccini25, 282; Brecciaroli Taborelli Reference Brecciaroli Taborelli1978, 113). In that year Bartoccini became the first Soprintendente of Tripolitania, having arrived in the region in 1920 and served as Pietro Romanelli’s assistant with a focus on Sabratha (Munzi Reference Munzi2012, 88–93). An archaeology graduate of Dante Vaglieri at La Sapienza University of Rome, Bartoccini likewise had strong political beliefs, becoming a member of the Italian Nationalist Party and subsequently Mussolini’s National Fascist Party. These political affiliations influenced his approach to Tripolitanian archaeology with his self-named ‘macchia d’olio’ (or ‘oil stain’) method prioritizing the rapid clearance of the Roman coastal sites, working from the centre outwards, following the streets and restoring the major monuments along the way (Bartoccini Reference Bartoccini1927, 17). These activities were used to legitimize colonial rule and encourage tourism, intersecting with personal interests while also meeting the demand for results from the authorities (Altekamp Reference Altekamp2000; Balci Reference Balci2010; Munzi Reference Munzi2001; 2011).

Figure 1.

General map of Sabratha with the Baths of Regio VII, indicated by a box made up of a dotted red line, in the south-west corner (after Aoisa Reference Aoisa2024, figure 2.1).

Figure 1 Long description

Map of Sabratha detailing several regions and landmarks. The map includes Regio I, II, III, IV, V, VI and VII, with notable structures such as the Temple of Hercules, Temple of Isis and Oceanus Baths. The Forum, South Forum Temple and Amphitheatre are marked. The Baths of Regio VII are highlighted with a dotted red line in the southwest corner. Other features include mausoleums, a quarry and the Mediterranean Sea to the north. Streets and pathways connect the various regions and landmarks, illustrating the layout of the ancient city.

Bartoccini’s approach was highly problematic both ideologically and archaeologically. Rodolfo Micacchi described it in unpublished official documentation as ‘scavo alla Bersagliera’ (or ‘excavation at a dash’) – a pejorative term referring to fast-paced excavations lacking scientific rigour (Munzi Reference Munzi2012, 89). The subordination of archaeology to colonial political propaganda led to the destruction and the loss of valuable stratigraphic information and contextual data. Caroline Barron’s (Reference Barron2025) research on a catacomb from Sirte, also excavated by Bartoccini, demonstrates the extent of such losses and the resulting misinterpretations. The key study of the Baths of Regio VII is by Luisa Brecciaroli Taborelli (Reference Brecciaroli Taborelli1978). She had to use a combination of archival research, new survey and limited excavation to address various issues, including inconsistencies in Bartoccini’s original descriptions. Our current understanding is also hampered by heavy restoration. Undisturbed archaeology was noted by Brecciaroli Taborelli, however, indicating that Bartoccini’s interventions were relatively shallow and focused on revealing the structure.

Between Brecciaroli Taborelli’s research and the subsequent work of Nicola Bonacasa and collaborators on the baths of Sabratha, the bath’s chronology, layout and decoration are well known even if the function and its relationship to the urban fabric remains contested (Bonacasa Reference Bonacasa2010; Boncasa Carra and Bonacasa Reference Bonacasa Carra and Bonacasa2017, 134–5; Bonacasa Carra Reference Bonacasa Carra, Bonacasa and Aiosa2017, 81–2). The complex was built in the second half of the second century AD as part of the Antonine expansion of the city to the southwest (Figure 2). It was constructed from local sandstone and embellished with mosaics, wall painting, stucco and sculpture. The core of the building remained largely the same until its abandonment in the mid to late fourth century, probably due to the earthquake in AD 365. Modifications to the building may have taken place in the early third century, but the main changes were in the late-third and early-fourth centuries with minor adjustments to the structure and updates to the interior decoration. These may be associated with another earthquake in around AD 306/310.

Figure 2.

Plan of the Baths of Regio VII (after Bonacasa (Reference Bonacasa Carra, Bonacasa and Aiosa2017), Figure 10).

The building was carefully planned around a symmetrical axial layout and a one-way circulation pattern which is common in small baths in North Africa (Figure 3). There has been some discussion about the location of the original entrance, due to our limited knowledge of the area to the southwest, but it seems likely that visitors entered through vestibule A (Brecciaroli Taborelli Reference Brecciaroli Taborelli1978, 115–18). Moving between two Corinthian columns – one capital survives in Proconnesian marble – bathers arrived in atrium B from where they could use a room to the west for changing (apodyterium C). This room was later remodelled with a deep-water channel. Returning to the atrium, visitors progressed through another pair of columns into a large frigidarium (D) with two elegant cold-water basins, an hexagonal pool to the north and an apse-ended one to the south, and rich mosaic decoration.

Figure 3.

Plan of the Baths of Regio VII with proposed circulation pattern (after Bonacasa (Reference Bonacasa Carra, Bonacasa and Aiosa2017), figure 10).

Figure 3 Long description

Plan of a bath complex showing a layout with labeled areas and a proposed circulation pattern indicated by green arrows. The labeled areas include A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, L and N. The arrows suggest a flow from A to B, then to D, E, F, G, H and I. The layout is symmetrical, with various rooms and corridors. A scale bar at the bottom right indicates a distance of 5 meters and a compass shows north orientation.

From the frigidarium, bathers began the cycle of warmer rooms. This started with tepidarium E to the south, an elliptical room with benches at the far end. In the earlier phase, one doorway led directly into Room F – a large, heated space, perhaps a destrictarium for the scraping off of oil with a strigil. In a later phase a second doorway was cut into the southeast end, leading into another heated room and, possibly, to another doorway to the south. Returning to the main circuit, visitors then passed into Room G, a small laconicum designed for intense sweating. Next came a caldarium (H) with two hot-water basins. One is rectangular and the other ovoid; both are raised up and the water heated from underneath.

All the heated rooms along the east side had suspended floors. Rooms G, H and later O had tubuli in the walls while Rooms E and F had flue pipes instead. The itinerary brought visitors back to a second tepidarium (I), with a suspended floor only, and then to frigidarium D. In the southwest of the building, adjoining atrium B, are two further rooms (L and N) which may have been for relaxation or exercise. There was a latrine in Room L during the first phase, but this seems to have been removed in the later one, perhaps being replaced by Room C.

The relationship between the baths and the urban plan has been debated. There was significant investment in the city during the Antonine period with the remodelling of the forum, embellishment of temples and installation of a new water supply by Flavius Tullus (Kenrick Reference Kenrick, Buck and Mattingly1985, 9). The so-called Theatre Baths were also added at this time (Brecciaroli Taborelli Reference Brecciaroli Taborelli1978, 114; Bonacasa Reference Bonacasa2010). Bartoccini (Reference Bartoccini1927, 22) proposed that the Baths of Regio VII were a private commission associated with a suburban villa; this suggestion was followed in the guidebooks of Haynes (Reference Haynes1965, 133–4) and Ward (Reference Ward1970, 26–7). There is no conclusive evidence, however, and its medium size and alignment with the urban grid plausibly suggests that it served a more public function for this region of the city (Brecciaroli Taborelli Reference Brecciaroli Taborelli1978, 114).

The excavations demonstrated that the baths were lavishly decorated. This included architectural decorations in carved stone and moulded stucco, wall painting and mosaic. Frigidarium D also boasted a statue of Apollo or Dionysos set up on a base in the centre of the eastern end (Brecciaroli Taborelli Reference Brecciaroli Taborelli1978, 131–2 and fn. 52). The mosaics belong to two distinct phases, separated by a century or so. In vestibule A and atrium B both phases are visible, with the later mosaics laid directly upon the earlier ones. The Antonine mosaics have black and white bichrome decoration with some polychrome elements. The mosaics of the later phase are polychrome with complex geometric and vegetal designs alongside floors of larger marble tesserae (Brecciaroli Taborelli Reference Brecciaroli Taborelli1978, 144–5).

Brecciaroli Taborelli (Reference Brecciaroli Taborelli1978, 125–40) provides a detailed description of all the rooms and their pavements, observing that none had been lifted but instead were consolidated with cement mortar. She notes that some of the mosaics had been repaired in antiquity. The mosaic in frigidarium D has small restorations using cocciopesto while other pavements exhibit mistakes which suggest antique interventions (atrium B, the threshold between rooms D and tepidarium I, tepidaria E and I, and caldarium H). There is little written information about the state of conservation of the mosaics when first excavated. Brecciaroli Taborelli (Reference Brecciaroli Taborelli1978, 113) highlights the value of Bartoccini’s photographic documentation in light of subsequent heavy restoration while also emphasizing the need for conservation saying that ‘un restauro che si rende ogni giorno più necessario” (‘a restoration that becomes more necessary every day’). The walls survive up to 1.70m tall in places, but much of the general appearance is the result of restorations following the surviving courses of sandstone in the foundations (Brecciaroli Taborelli Reference Brecciaroli Taborelli1978, 114 and fn. 8).

Conserving and Managing Mosaics in Libya (CaMMiL) project

In the 1990s and 2000s Enrica Foschi worked with the Libyan Department of Antiquities (DoA) to assess the conservation issues facing the mosaics of Tripolitania, identifying problems and proposing solutions. Foschi (Reference Foschi and Blanc2003) focused on two complexes, the Seaward and Theatre Baths at Sabratha, recording historic restorations from the 1930s onwards, which include the relaying of pavements on iron-reinforced cement and various methods of repair to consolidate smaller areas of detached tesserae, from filling lacunae to reinforcing the edges of the tessellatum, to the tamping down of bulges and injecting the cavities with a cement mortar mix. Unfortunately, cement has often been used for conservation interventions due to its availability, although in recent years lime mortar has been championed as a more appropriate material (Wootton et al. Reference Wootton, El-Habashi, Stewart and Walda2015, 107 and 110; see Davidde Petriaggi et al. Reference Davidde Petriaggi, D’Angelo, Gennari, Angeletti Latini, El-Turki, Santarelli, Bontempi, Arangio, Quattrociocchi, Zuena, Teutonico, Friedman, Abed and Nardi2017 for an example of a conservation project in Libya responding to the significant problems with mosaics re-backed onto iron-reinforced concrete).

Following on from Foschi’s work, the CaMMiL project, funded by the Getty Foundation, collaborated with the DoA to build capacity among their staff to assess significance, condition, threats and risks across an archaeological site and to prioritize interventions based on consideration of value and benefit as well as the broader management of the site and visitor engagement (Wootton et al. Reference Wootton, El-Habashi, Stewart and Walda2015). The proximity of the Baths of Regio VII to the excavation offices, where the workshops took place, made it an obvious choice as one of the locations for CaMMiL’s practical on-site exercises. These were delivered to site managers and the technicians from Tripolitania and Cyrenaica. During 2012 and 2013, the complex’s state of conservation was assessed by the four groups alongside the project team (Figure 4).

Figure 4.

Practical exercise in the Baths of Regio VII during the CaMMiL project in 2011 (photograph: W.T. Wootton).

The groups observed that the baths and their mosaics are of high significance but not on the visitor trail, so the exposed mosaics are of no public benefit. The mosaics were in very poor condition and rapidly deteriorating. The complex was deemed, therefore, to be an excellent candidate for reburial. Conservation of archaeological sites through reburial had been one of the themes of the training. This intervention seeks to preserve ancient remains by creating an environment similar to that which preserved them over millennia. Reburial is also beneficial in reducing the costs of maintenance (where these exist), focusing resources on conservation and maintenance of exposed remains presented to the public, as part of a strategic conservation plan.

After the exercises, the site manager of Sabratha, Mohamed Abougela, requested a formal report from the project team and an outline specification for future reburial. This was produced and submitted to the DoA (Figure 5). The design concept made use of appropriate and inexpensive local materials. It outlined the necessary steps which could be carried out by local site technicians with the support of the Getty Conservation Institute’s publication Technician Training for the Maintenance of In Situ Mosaics, which was circulated by the project in its Arabic version (Alberti, Bourguignon and Roby Reference Alberti, Bourguignon and Roby2013). The reburial was planned for the mid-term, a period of approximately five years, and focused on the pavements in the main rooms (A, B, C, D, E, I). It noted that the protection of the wall mosaics in the basins in the frigidarum (D) was a more complex problem and required further consideration.

Figure 5.

Reburial plan for the Baths of Regio VII, submitted by the CaMMiL project to the DoA in 2013 (authors: John Stewart, Will Wootton and Alaa El-Habashi).

Figure 5 Long description

Textual illustration with two panels. Panel A is a formal document titled ′Sabratha - Draft plan for mosaic conservation reburial′ by the CaMMiL project. It includes sections: Introduction, Preliminary Site Preparation, Materials, Reburial Operations and Subsequent Maintenance. Key points include cleaning, documentation and using sand, gravel and geotextile. Reburial steps involve excavation, cleaning and layering materials. Authors are John Stewart, Will Wootton and Alaa El-Habashi. Panel B is a technical cross-section diagram showing layers of sand, gravel and geotextile over a mosaic, with labeled dimensions and annotations. The diagram visually represents the reburial method described in the document. No decorative elements are present. The layout includes typed headings and bullet lists in Panel A and labeled callouts in Panel B.

It was hoped that the outline specification would be the impetus for an actual reburial but the plan was not carried out due to instability in Libya. The proposal was revisited, however, as part of the MaLiCH project, and the history of the baths is crucial to understanding how the past has conditioned the material state of the mosaics, the present-day conservation risks and the range of feasible management responses.

Reburial of the Baths of Regio VII: assessment, planning and design

Since March 2020, the MaLiCH project has focused on strengthening national capacity for the preparation, implementation and monitoring of management plans for three Libyan World Heritage Sites on UNESCO’s List of World Heritage in Danger: the Old Town of Ghadames, the Archaeological Site of Leptis Magna and the Archaeological Site of Sabratha. In addition to strategic planning, MaLiCH has supported the delivery of targeted conservation interventions to safeguard these sites and enhance their long-term resilience (Alkhalaf et al. Reference Alkhalaf, Elhabashi, Hesham, Hiba, Omaar, Walda and Wootton2025; Alkhalaf et al. in this volume).

For both archaeological sites, managing unchecked vegetation growth was selected as a priority in advance of interventions which focused on their built heritage. At Sabratha the severity and extent of this problem is exemplified by a medium-sized halophyte shrub (Suaeda Vera) common to salt-rich and sandy coastal zones which has grown to cover large parts of the property’s core and periphery. In collaboration with the DoA, a campaign of vegetation removal took place in May 2024 (Alkhalaf et al. in this volume). Locations were selected in the central areas of the site (Figure 6). The Baths of Regio VII were included as a first step towards the reburial of the mosaics.

Figure 6.

Overview map showing the main areas of vegetation removal at Sabratha (prepared by H. Alkhalaf).

Figure 6 Long description

Map of Sabratha illustrating areas where vegetation cover has been removed, highlighted in green. The map includes a scale bar indicating distances of 0, 100 and 200 meters. The removed vegetation areas are distributed across the site, with several patches concentrated in the central region. The map features a north arrow for orientation and a coastal boundary at the top. Roads and pathways are visible, providing context to the layout of the site. The legend identifies the green areas as ′vegetation cover removed.′.

The complex was inundated with Suaeda Vera. The roots of the plants were growing under the tessellatum and through the mosaic structure, causing significant damage. There was potential for further harm through their extraction. The vegetation also impeded documentation and assessment of the mosaics’ condition (Figures 7–8).

Figure 7.

Aerial views of the Baths of Regio VII before and after the vegetation clearance in May and June 2024 (drone photographs by M. Hadia).

Figure 8.

Views of the Baths of Regio VII before and after the removal of the Suaeda Vera in May 2024 (photographs by W.T Wootton).

The pavements were cleaned with a brush. This was carried out by one person to limit footfall on the surface which had numerous areas of tessera detachment and bulging (Figures 9–11). The latter were at risk of collapse under pressure. The shrubs were then cut back at the base of the stem with pruning shears and a saw. These tools were handled very carefully so that their movement and any associated vibration did not damage the tessellatum. It was not possible to extract the plants’ root systems below the mosaic structure without destroying it. Once this process was completed, a fence was erected around the site to prevent unauthorized entry and limit the chance of further damage to the fragile mosaics before their reburial, which was not expected until the project team returned – a period of 6 to 12 months was anticipated.

Figure 9.

Details of the mosaic in frigidarium D where the Suaeda Vera has grown through the tessellatum (photograph by W.T Wootton).

Figure 10.

Details of the bulging tessellatum in the mosaic in frigidarium D (photographs by W.T Wootton).

Figure 11.

Details of the detached tesserae in the mosaic in frigidarium D (photographs by W.T Wootton).

Away from the site, an updated plan was created starting with another campaign of cleaning, the removal of plant regrowth and treatment of the stems with herbicide to kill the root systems and finally the production of a new photographic record and condition survey. The outline reburial design was revisited in light of the Getty Conservation Institute’s new publication on the topic (Roby et al. Reference Roby, Stewart, Demas and Alberti2024) but remained largely the same: to protect and preserve the mosaics while also ensuring that the intervention was reversible and in keeping with the local environment. Two practical considerations were further developed: the acquisition, nature and depth of the fill materials and the construction of containment walls where no reconstructed walls survive.

Ideally, areas of damaged mosaic are stabilized prior to reburial. Mosaic conservation expertise, however, did not exist locally. Compromise, therefore, was needed. Loose tesserae would be retained in place with open-weave plastic netting placed atop them. Areas of bulging tessellatum would be protected from collapse under the weight of the fill by means of hard protective covers, such as ceramic bowls and roof tiles. These measures would also prevent damage during future re-excavation. The mosaics could then be conserved if, and when, money and expertise became available.

The materials depended on ready availability at the local builders’ yards. A set of criteria were defined to choose the best and most appropriate options when the reburial went ahead. The fill materials should be well graded and have good liquid water permeability (water ascending from the ground and descending from rainwater), be low in salt content, compatible with the local environment (e.g. similar pH) and mitigate vegetation growth on top of the fill.

To achieve this, local soil would be used in contact with the mosaic (1), then coarse sand (2) and finally gravel (3). Each of the layers would be compacted manually to avoid subsequent settlement issues and ensure that the fill is distributed evenly. To facilitate any future re-excavation, open-mesh plastic netting would be placed on top of fragile areas of the mosaic to indicate their location and between layers 2 and 3.

In the main part of the baths, the existing walls were around 0.5m high (they are taller in the basins and where the suspended floors have been lost or damaged in the suite of heated rooms to the east). The resulting depth of fill met the desired aim for a mid- to long-term reburial (Roby et al. Reference Roby, Stewart, Demas and Alberti2024, Document 6, 48–50). New containment walls were necessary in certain parts of rooms A, B, C, D, E and I (Figure 12). Cement blocks would be used with cement mortar and have no contact with the mosaics. The reburial would be overseen by the project team working with the DoA at Sabratha.

Figure 12.

Plan of the Baths of Regio VII with containment walls marked on and location where fill materials were stored (after Bonacasa (Reference Bonacasa Carra, Bonacasa and Aiosa2017), figure 10).

Figure 12 Long description

Plan of the Baths of Regio VII with labeled rooms A to N. The map indicates the location of fill materials in a highlighted area. Containment walls are marked with dashed lines around rooms A, B, C, D, E and I. The layout includes various interconnected rooms, with a scale bar indicating 0 to 5 meters for reference. A compass rose shows the north direction. The plan provides a detailed view of the bath complex′s structure and the areas designated for fill material storage.

Implementation

The reburial took place over the course of five days in April 2025. During the first four days, the project team started at 8am and finished at 5pm which, with breaks, was an 8-hour working day. The fifth and final day was a half day with work stopping at lunchtime. In total, the reburial was completed in 4.5 days or around 36 hours. In the following narrative, the activities will be described in blocks. This elaborates upon the design and planning activities detailed above while also showing the necessity of a flexible and problem-solving approach.

Days 1–2: preparation, cleaning and documentation

The first two days focused on removing vegetation and re-cleaning the mosaics and surrounding complex (Figure 13). Once that was completed, the surface was documented and assessed. On day 2 the fill materials were selected and purchased from the local builder’s yard based on the ideal properties of cleanliness, permeability and compatibility. The bricklayer constructed the containment walls (Figure 14). The blocks were subsequently painted with a mix of local soil and sand to make them blend in with the environment. Every day, shopping trips were made to purchase tools, materials and other equipment (see Appendix I for list of items used).

Figure 13.

The newly re-cleaned Baths of Regio VII ready for the documentation and reburial (photograph by W.T Wootton).

Figure 14.

The containment wall outside of vestibule A (photograph by W.T Wootton).

Days 3–5: mosaic protection and fill installation

Netting was cut to size and laid over fragile areas of the mosaic and loose tesserae. Areas of bulging tessellatum, most prevalent in frigidarium D, required protection as described above. Those of a circular shape were covered with ceramic bowls where possible – the largest ones, however, could only be covered by wooden bowls – those with longer and thinner shapes had half-round clay tiles placed over them (Figure 15).

Figure 15.

Bowls and half-round tiles over bulging areas in frigidarium D (photograph by MaLiCH project).

The first fill layer, consisting of local soil, was delivered by truck. Deliveries continued with the materials being deposited and stored just outside of vestibule A (see Figure 12), where they were shovelled into barrows and wheeled into the rooms using wooden planks to protect the mosaic surface. The reburial started in the nearest two rooms from the westernmost corner of vestibule A. The soil was initially deposited and spread carefully by hand to a depth of 4–5 cm. More was then added and further compacted. The back sides of the rakes were used to spread the soil and create a smooth, even surface. The final depth was 10 cm.

By the end of day 4, the first layer of soil covered rooms A, B, D, E and I (Figures 16–17). The vestibule A, atrium B and frigidarium D had also received the second layer of sand to a depth of around 35 cm. On day 5, Room C received the first layer of soil. Wooden boards were carefully placed and barrows wheeled over the deep channel. When that became awkward, buckets were deployed and the room filled by hand. With Layer 2 installed across the rest of the baths, netting was rolled out and cut to size. A protective case was made around the capital in atrium B with the remaining cement blocks.

Figure 16.

The first layer of local soil installed across the Baths of Regio VII (photograph by MaLiCH project).

Figure 17.

Work in progress on the reburial of the Baths of Regio VII (drone photograph by MaLiCH project).

The gravel was laid first in tepidaria E and I, working back to vestibule A. Its depth was around 5 cm bringing the complete height of the reburial fill to 0.5 m, the same height as the exterior walls. The remaining gravel was spread in the area in front of the baths to suppress plant growth. The reburial was completed by the middle of day 5 with the whole process documented using cameras and drones (Figure 18).

Figure 18.

Before and after images of the reburial of the Baths of Regio VII (drone photographs by MaLiCH project).

Various options were discussed to rebury the wall mosaics in the two basins adjoining frigidarium D. The mosaics were in very poor condition. There has been significant loss and previous interventions have attempted to consolidate them with cement mortar. The outline plan proposed the construction of wooden shutters within the basins, which could then be infilled. The wood necessary to build this system, however, was not available in April 2025. The use of high-density foam blocks was considered as an alternative. The idea was to stack them centrally in the basin and then fill around. A stable structure proved difficult to achieve and there were concerns about the foam’s environmental performance which might lead to pollution. In the circumstances, therefore, it was decided to leave the basins until another solution could be found.

Collaboration, capacity building and public engagement

The project team worked in collaboration with the DoA site manager, his management team and technicians, delivering a mentoring system where each step was planned and implemented together (Figure 19). The DoA employed local labourers with whom we also worked closely. In addition students from the Department of Archaeology at the University of Sabratha joined us. Visitors from the university and from the general public took great interest in the project. They came to watch the activities and discussed the reasons for reburying archaeological remains. This provided an opportunity to engage in outreach and to speak about the conservation problems in Tripolitania and the benefits of reburial as a management strategy.

Figure 19.

The MaLiCH project team with the members of DoA Sabratha (drone photograph by MaLiCH project).

Outcomes and reflections

There has been only one mosaic reburial undertaken in Libya and that was done in Cyrenaica (Buzaian and Hashem Reference Buzaian and Hashem2014). This represents, therefore, the second. It is important that it took place in Tripolitania thereby introducing regional DoA personnel to this valuable practice. The DoA staff in Sabratha now have the incipient knowledge and aspirations to carry out further mosaic reburials, which is critically needed to save endangered mosaics at the site and along the coastline. This builds on the theoretical workshops completed by the CaMMiL project and provides new practical skills which can be implemented where and when necessary.

Previous activities and publications, especially by the Getty Conservation Institute, have demonstrated the value and benefits of reburial especially in the case of mosaics (Alberti, Bourguignon and Roby Reference Alberti, Bourguignon and Roby2013; Roby et al. Reference Roby, Stewart, Demas and Alberti2024). The intervention at the Baths of Regio VII endorses the approach and shows how reburial operates as a management tool in complex socio-political situations. In this case, reburial was an excellent solution in a conflict-affected setting where instability has been protracted, funding remains limited and there are significant competing demands from large and exposed archaeological sites.

Proximity to the coast adds further problems such as erosion and sea-level rise, large fluctuations in temperature and moisture content (in combination with high salinity), extreme weather conditions and human activity and development pressures. The other important factor to note is how an intervention such as reburial, with the correct design and materials, can be completed rapidly and inexpensively. It represents, therefore, a cost-effective and time-efficient method for management, albeit one that requires subsequent maintenance and monitoring.

Over the course of the project, records were kept of the finances, labour and materials (Table 1). A total of around £2,500 (18,000 LYD) was spent reburying an area of around 150 m² of the Baths of Regio VII. The various expenses are most meaningfully understood as percentages: 60% on labour costs, 19% on tools and other materials, 15% on the fill materials and their delivery and finally 6% on food and refreshments during the working days. Labour was the most expensive component. Over the five days, in addition to the four members of the project team, who are not part of the financial calculations, there were between three to five members of the DoA, usually one university student and between five to ten labourers. In total there were around 11 people working on site each day, including the project team, meaning that nearly 400 working hours were completed in 4.5 days (or nearly 50 days of work by one person based on an 8-hour working day).

Table 1.

Quantification of materials used during the reburial of the Baths of Regio VII

Table 1 Long description

Room-by-room measurements list north–south and east–west lengths, total floor area, and fill volumes for three reburial layers with different thicknesses. Total area across all listed spaces is 149.09 square meters, with combined fill materials totaling 76.04 cubic meters. Atrium and frigidarium (B and D) is the largest space at 82.15 square meters and also has the highest volumes in each layer: 8.22 cubic meters for layer 1, 28.75 for layer 2, and 4.93 for layer 3. Vestibule (A) is next by area at 21.84 square meters, followed by tepidarium E at 15.28 and tepidarium I at 13.98; the smallest areas are the two thresholds (E/D and I/D) at 0.54 each and the palaestra (L) at 2.73. Layer 2 contributes the most material in every room, reflecting its greater thickness compared with layers 1 and 3. Values are presented as calculated volumes per layer and may reflect rounding in the totals.

A total of about 76 m³ (or around 122,000kg/122 tonnes) of fill was shovelled, barrowed and laid into the six rooms. With the first couple of days taken up with planning and preparation, all of the fill materials were moved in 2.5 days. Estimates for this type of work by the Getty Conservation Institute suggest 0.5–1 m³ per person per day so, with an average of 11 people working, we moved closer to 3 m³ per person per day which is 176% faster than their most optimistic estimate (Roby et al. Reference Roby, Stewart, Demas and Alberti2024, Documents 5, 7 and 8). This suggests that the higher end of the estimate could be revised upwards, accepting that these data evidence a specific one-off intervention, logistics, labour composition and access, and will vary between sites.

The performance of the reburial will be monitored over the coming months and years by the DoA and with the project’s support. Checks will focus on vegetation regrowth, the erosion of the fill and any drainage issues. It is advised to remove any plants growing in the gravel cover and to cut back regularly the Suaeda Vera bushes around the complex. The joints between the new perimeter walls should be checked frequently because that is the most likely point of weakness where the fill might erode if gaps emerged. Subsequent to the reburial, there have been some extreme weather events, including severe rainfall, and no problems have been observed. The pre-reburial perimeter fencing has also been reinstated (Figure 20) and signage will be installed. The interpretation board will present the archaeological complex and explain the reasons for the reburial so that visitors understand its value and benefits.

Figure 20.

Fencing reinstated around the site following the reburial (photograph by W.T. Wootton).