2.3.1 Force-free simulations

Force-free simulations were carried out in a square domain of size $[-L,L]\times [-L,L]$ with 400 grid cells in each direction. Periodic boundary conditions were imposed on all boundaries. Four models with different magnetic Reynolds numbers $Re_{m}=4\unicode[STIX]{x03C0}\unicode[STIX]{x1D705}_{\Vert }L/c$ were investigated. figure 5 shows the evolution of the parameter $1-E^{2}/B^{2}$ , which is a Lorentz-invariant measure of the relative electric field strength, for the model with $Re_{m}=10^{3}$ . Until $t=7$ this parameter remains very close to zero throughout the whole domain, indicating the absence of current sheets and rapid motion in the bulk. Around $t=7$ , thin current sheets become visible in between magnetic islands (see figure 5 a). After this time the evolution proceeds rapidly – small islands merge to form larger ones until only two islands remain as one can also see in figure 6, which shows the evolution of $B_{z}$ . Models with higher $Re_{m}$ show very similar evolution, with almost the same time for the onset of mergers and the same rate of magnetic dissipation after that. Figure 7 shows the evolution of the total electromagnetic energy in the box. One can see that for $t<7$ , the energy significantly decreases in models with $Re_{m}=10^{3}$ and $Re_{m}=2\times 10^{3}$ due to the ohmic dissipation, whereas it remains more or less unchanged in the models with $Re_{m}>5\times 10^{3}$ . The first ‘knee’ on each curve corresponds to the onset of the first wave of merges. At $t>7$ the magnetic dissipation rate no longer depends on $Re_{m}$ . The characteristic time scale of the process is very short – only a few light crossings of the box.

Figure 4.

(a) Initial stage of the development of instability in force-free simulations. The colour image shows the distribution of the current density $j_{z}$ at $t=7.4$ in the model with $Re_{m}=10^{3}$ . The newly formed current sheets are clearly visible. (b) The development of the current sheet due to a shift of magnetic islands in the theoretical model (in the initial configuration 2-D ABC magnetic structure the two nearby rows of magnetic islands are shifted by some amount; this produces highly stressed configuration that would lead to X-point collapse).

Overall, the numerical results agree with our theoretical analysis (§§ 2–5). The fact that the onset of mergers does not depend on $Re_{m}$ supports the conclusion that the evolution starts as an ideal instability, driven by the large-scale magnetic stresses. This instability leads to the relative motion of flux tubes and development of stressed X-points, with highly unbalanced magnetic tension. They collapse and form current sheets (see figure 4).

Figure 5.

X-point collapse and island merging for a set of unstressed magnetic islands in force-free simulations. We plot $1-E^{2}/B^{2}$ at times $t=8.0,10.0,15.0$ and 20. Compare with the results of PIC simulations, figure 12.

Until $t\leqslant 7$ the instability develops in the linear regime and the initial periodic structure is still well preserved. At the nonlinear stage, at $t\geqslant 7$ , two new important effects come into play. Firstly, the magnetic reconnection leads to the emergence of closed magnetic field lines around two or more magnetic islands of similar polarity (see figure 7). Once formed, the common magnetic shroud pushes the islands towards the reconnection region in between via magnetic tension. Thus, this regime can be called a forced reconnection. As the reconnection proceeds, more common magnetic field lines develop, increasing the driving force. Secondly, the current of the current sheet separating the merging islands becomes sufficiently large to slow down the merger via providing a repulsive force (§ 5). Hence, the reconnection rate is determined both by the resistivity of the current sheet and the overall magnetic tension of common field lines.

We have studied the same problem using Particle-on-cell (PIC) simulations of highly magnetized plasma and their results are strikingly similar (compare figures 4–6 with figures 12 and 13). Not only do they exhibit the same phases of evolution, but also very similar time scales. This shows that the details of the microphysics are not important and the key role is played by the large-scale magnetic stresses.

Figure 6.

X-point collapse and island merging for a set of unstressed magnetic islands in force-free simulations. We plot $B_{z}/2B_{0}$ at times $t=8.0,10.0,15.0$ and 20.

Figure 7.

(a) Evolution of the total electromagnetic energy in the computational domain for the force-free models with $Re_{m}=10^{3}$ (dotted), $2\times 10^{3}$ (dash-dotted), $5\times 10^{3}$ (dashed) and $2\times 10^{4}$ (solid). In all models, the merger phase starts around $t=8$ , which corresponds to the first ‘knee’ of these curves. Compare the temporal evolution of the electromagnetic in force-free simulations with those in PICs, figure 9. (b,c) Solutions at $t=7.2$ (left) and $t=8$ (right) for the model with $Re_{m}=10^{3}$ . The colour coded image shows $B_{z}/2B_{0}$ . The contours are the magnetic field lines. One can see that some lines have become common for several islands.

2.4.1 The instability of 2-D ABC structures

Figure 8 illustrates the instability of a typical 2-D ABC structure. The plot presents the 2-D pattern of the out-of-plane field $B_{z}$ (in units of $B_{0,in}$ ) from a PIC simulation with $kT/mc^{2}=10^{2}$ , $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}=42$ and $L=126\,r_{L,\text{hot}}$ , performed within a large square domain of size $4L\times 4L$ . Time is measured in units of $L/c$ and indicated in the grey boxes within each panel. The system does not show any evidence of evolution until $ct/L\sim 4$ . This is also confirmed by the temporal tracks shown in figure 9, where (a) presents the energy partition among different components. Until $ct/L\sim 4$ , all the energy is still in the magnetic field (solid blue line), and the state of the system is identical to the initial set-up.

Quite abruptly, at $ct/L\sim 5$ (figure 8 b), the system becomes unstable. The pattern of magnetic islands shifts along the oblique direction, in analogy to the mode illustrated in figure 2. In agreement with the fluid simulations presented by East et al. (Reference East, Zrake, Yuan and Blandford2015), our PIC results confirm that this is an ideal instability. The onset time is comparable to what is observed in force-free simulations (see figure 7) and it does not appreciably depend on numerical parameters (so, on the level of numerical noise). In particular, we find no evidence for an earlier onset time when degrading our numerical resolution (spatial resolution or number of particles per cell). As we show below, the onset time at $ct/L\sim 5$ is also remarkably independent of physical parameters, with only a moderate trend for later onset times at larger values of $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ . We have also investigated the dependence of the onset time on the number of ABC islands in the computational domain (or equivalently, on the box size in units of $L$ ). We find that square domains with $2L\times 2L$ or $4L\times 4L$ yield similar onset times, whereas the instability is systematically delayed (by a few $L/c$ ) in rectangular boxes with $2L\times L$ , probably because this reduces the number of modes that can go unstable (in fact, we have verified that ABC structures in a periodic square box of size $L\times L$ are stable). We conclude that the abrupt evolution observed at times $ct/L\geqslant 5$ is physically motivated – this the stage where the instabilities reaches a nonlinear stage.

Following the instability onset, the evolution of the system proceeds on the dynamical time. Within a few $L/c$ , as they drift along the oblique direction, neighbouring islands with the same $B_{z}$ polarity come into contact (figure 8(c) at $ct/L=6$ ), the X-points in between each pair of islands collapse under the effect of large-scale stresses (see Paper I), and thin current sheets are formed. For the parameters of figure 8, the resulting current sheets are so long that they are unstable to the secondary tearing mode (Uzdensky, Loureiro & Schekochihin Reference Uzdensky, Loureiro and Schekochihin2010), and secondary plasmoids are formed (e.g. see the plasmoid at $(x,y)=(-1.5L,L)$ at $ct/L=6$ ). Below, we demonstrate that the formation of secondary plasmoids is primarily controlled by the ratio $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ . At the X-points, the magnetic energy is converted into particle energy by a reconnection electric field of order ${\sim}0.3B_{in}$ , where $B_{in}$ is the in-plane field (so, the reconnection rate is $v_{\text{rec}}/c\sim 0.3$ ).Footnote ¹ As shown in figure 9(a), it is primarily the in-plane field that gets dissipated (compare the dashed and solid blue lines), driving an increase in the electric energy (green) and in the particle kinetic energy (red).Footnote ² In this phase of evolution, the fraction of initial energy released to the particles is still small ( $\unicode[STIX]{x1D716}_{\text{kin}}/\unicode[STIX]{x1D716}_{\text{tot}}(0)\sim 0.1$ ), but the particles advected into the X-points experience a dramatic episode of acceleration. As shown in figure 9(b), the cutoff Lorentz factor $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{\text{max}}$ of the particle spectrum presents a dramatic evolution, increasing from the thermal value $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{th}\simeq 3kT/mc^{2}$ (here, $kT/mc^{2}=10^{2}$ ) by a factor of $10^{3}$ within a couple of dynamical times. It is this phase of extremely fast particle acceleration that we associate with the generation of the Crab flares.

Figure 9.

Temporal evolution of various quantities, from a 2-D PIC simulation of ABC instability with $kT/mc^{2}=10^{2}$ , $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}=42$ and $L=126\,r_{L,\text{hot}}$ , performed within a large square domain of size $4L\times 4L$ (the same run as in figure 8). (a) Fraction of energy in magnetic fields (solid blue), in-plane magnetic fields (dashed blue, with $\unicode[STIX]{x1D716}_{B,in}=\unicode[STIX]{x1D716}_{B}/2$ in the initial configuration), electric fields (green) and particles (red; excluding the rest mass energy), in units of the total initial energy. Compare the temporal evolution of the electromagnetic in PIC simulations with those that are force free, figure 7. (b) Evolution of the maximum Lorentz factor $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{\text{max}}$ , as defined in (2.3), relative to the thermal Lorentz factor $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{th}\simeq 1+(\hat{\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}}-1)^{-1}kT/mc^{2}$ , which for our case is $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{th}\simeq 300$ . The development of the instability at $ct/L\simeq 5$ is accompanied by little field dissipation ( $\unicode[STIX]{x1D716}_{\text{kin}}/\unicode[STIX]{x1D716}_{\text{tot}}(0)\sim 0.1$ ) but dramatic particle acceleration. (a,b) Vertical dotted black line indicates the time when the electric energy peaks, which happens shortly before the end of the most violent phase of instability.

Over one dynamical time, the current sheets in between neighbouring islands stretch to their maximum length of ${\sim}L$ . This corresponds to the time when the electric energy peaks, which is indicated by the dotted black line in figure 9, and it shortly precedes the end of the most violent phase of instability. The peak time of the electric energy will be a useful reference point when comparing runs with different physical parameters. The first island merger event ends at $ct/L\sim 7$ with the coalescence of island cores. At later times, the system of magnetic islands will undergo additional merger episodes (i.e. at $ct/L\sim 9$ and 12), with the formation of current sheets and secondary plasmoids (see e.g. at $(x,y)=(L,-1.5L)$ in figure 8 e), but the upper cutoff of the particle spectrum will not change by more than a factor of three (see figure 9 b at $ct/L\gtrsim 6$ ). As a consequence, the spectral cutoff at the final time is not expected to be significantly dependent on the number of lengths $L$ in the computational domain, as we have indeed verified. Rather than dramatic acceleration of a small number of ‘lucky’ particles, the late phases result in substantial heating of the bulk of the particles, as illustrated by the red line in figure 9(a). As a consequence of particle heating, the effective magnetization of the plasma is only $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}\sim 1$ after the initial merger episode (compare the dashed blue and solid red lines at $ct/L\sim 9$ and 12 in figure 9 a), which explains why additional island mergers do not lead to dramatic particle acceleration. The rate of dissipation of magnetic energy into particle energy at late times is approximately consistent with the results of force-free simulations (see figure 7). At late times, the system saturates when only two regions are left in the box, having $B_{z}$ fields of opposite polarity (figure 8 f). In the final state, most of the in-plane magnetic energy has been transferred to the particles (compare the red and dashed blue lines in figure 9 a).

In figure 13 we compare the development of the two modes of instability, the parallel and the oblique one.

Figure 10.

Particle spectrum and synchrotron spectrum from a 2-D PIC simulation of ABC instability with $kT/mc^{2}=10^{2}$ , $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}=42$ and $L=126\,r_{L,\text{hot}}$ , performed within a large square domain of size $4L\times 4L$ (the same run as in figures 8 and 9). Time is measured in units of $L/c$ , see the colour bar at the top. (a) Evolution of the electron energy spectrum normalized to the total number of electrons. At late times, the spectrum approaches a distribution of the form $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}\,\text{d}N/\text{d}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}\propto \unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}^{-1}$ , corresponding to equal energy content in each decade of $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}$ (compare with the dotted black line). The inset in (a) shows the electron momentum spectrum along different directions (as indicated in the legend), at the time when the electric energy peaks (as indicated by the dotted black line in figure 9). (b) Evolution of the angle-averaged synchrotron spectrum emitted by electrons. The frequency on the horizontal axis is normalized to $\unicode[STIX]{x1D708}_{B,in}=\sqrt{\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}}\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}_{p}/2\unicode[STIX]{x03C0}$ . At late times, the synchrotron spectrum approaches $\unicode[STIX]{x1D708}L_{\unicode[STIX]{x1D708}}\propto \unicode[STIX]{x1D708}^{1/2}$ (compare with the dotted black line), which just follows from the electron spectrum $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}\,\text{d}N/\text{d}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}\propto \unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}^{-1}$ . The inset in (b) shows the synchrotron spectrum at the time indicated in figure 9 (dotted black line) along different directions (within a solid angle of $\unicode[STIX]{x0394}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FA}/4\unicode[STIX]{x03C0}\sim 3\times 10^{-3}$ ), as indicated in the legend in the inset of (a). The resulting isotropy of the synchrotron emission is consistent with the particle distribution illustrated in the inset of (a).

2.4.2 Particle acceleration and emission signatures

The evolution of the particle spectrum in figure 10(a) illustrates the acceleration capabilities of the instability of ABC structures. Until $ct/L\sim 4$ , the particle spectrum does not show any sign of evolution, and it does not deviate from the initial Maxwellian distribution peaking at $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{th}\simeq 300$ . From $ct/L\sim 4$ up to $ct/L\sim 8$ (from purple to light blue in the plot), the high-energy end of the particle spectrum undergoes a dramatic evolution, whereas the thermal peak is still unaffected (so, only a small fraction of the particles are accelerated). This is the most dramatic phase of particle acceleration, which we associate with the Crab flares. At the end of this explosive phase, the high-energy tail of the particle spectrum resembles a power law $\text{d}N/\text{d}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}\propto \unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}^{-s}$ with a hard slope $s\sim 1.5$ . The angle-averaged synchrotron spectrum (figure 10 b) parallels the extreme evolution of the particle spectrum, with the peak frequency of $\unicode[STIX]{x1D708}L_{\unicode[STIX]{x1D708}}$ moving from the ‘thermal’ value ${\sim}10^{8}\unicode[STIX]{x1D708}_{B,in}$ (dominated by the emission of thermal particles with $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}\sim \unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{th}$ ) up to ${\sim}10^{13}\unicode[STIX]{x1D708}_{B,in}$ within just a few dynamical times. Here, we have defined $\unicode[STIX]{x1D708}_{B,in}=\sqrt{\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}}\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}_{p}/2\unicode[STIX]{x03C0}$ .

The evolution at later times, during subsequent merger episodes, is at most moderate. From $ct/L\sim 8$ up to the final time $ct/L\sim 20$ (from light blue to red in the plot), the upper energy cutoff of the particle spectrum only increases by a factor of three, and the peak synchrotron frequency only by a factor of ten. The most significant evolution of the electron spectrum at such late times involves the thermal peak of the distribution, which shifts up in energy by a factor of ${\sim}10$ . This confirms what we have anticipated above, i.e. that subsequent episodes of island mergers primarily result in particle heating, rather than non-thermal acceleration. At the final time, the particle high-energy spectrum resembles a power law $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}\,\text{d}N/\text{d}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}\propto \unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}^{-1}$ (compare with the dotted black line in a) and, consequently, the angle-averaged synchrotron spectrum approaches $\unicode[STIX]{x1D708}L_{\unicode[STIX]{x1D708}}\propto \unicode[STIX]{x1D708}^{1/2}$ (compare with the dotted black line in b).

The inset in figure 10(a) shows the electron momentum distribution along different directions (as indicated in the legend), at the time when the electric energy peaks (as indicated by the dotted black line in figure 9). The electron distribution is roughly isotropic. This might appear surprising, since at this time the particles are being dramatically accelerated at the collapsing X-points in between neighbouring islands, and in Paper I we have demonstrated that the particle distribution during X-point collapse is highly anisotropic. The accelerated electrons were beamed along the reconnection outflow and in the direction opposite to the accelerating electric field (while positrons were parallel to the electric field). Indeed, the particle distribution at each X-point in the collapsing ABC structure shows the same anisotropy as for a solitary X-point.

The apparent isotropy in the inset of figure 10(a) is a peculiar result of the ABC geometry. Figure 8(c) shows that in the $x{-}y$ plane the number of current sheets (and so, of reconnection outflows) oriented along $x$ is roughly comparable to those along $y$ . So, no preferred direction for the electron momentum spectrum is expected in the $x{-}y$ plane. In addition, in 2-D ABC structures the accelerating electric field $E_{z}$ has always the same polarity as the local out-of-plane magnetic field $B_{z}$ (or equivalently, $\boldsymbol{E}\boldsymbol{\cdot }\boldsymbol{B}>0$ at X-points, as we explicitly show in figure 12 c). In other words, current sheets that are coloured in yellow in figure 8(c) have $E_{z}>0$ , whereas $E_{z}<0$ in current sheets coloured in blue. Since the two options occur in equal numbers, no difference between the electron momentum spectrum in the $+z$ versus $-z$ direction is expected. Both the spatially integrated electron momentum distribution (inset in a) and the resulting synchrotron emission (inset in b) will then be nearly isotropic, for the case of ABC collapse.

Figures 11 and 12 describe the physics of particle acceleration during the instability of ABC structures. We consider a representative simulation with $kT/mc^{2}=10^{-4}$ , $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}=42$ and $L=251\,r_{L,\text{hot}}$ , performed within a square domain of size $2L\times 2L$ . In figure 11(b), we present a 2-D histogram of accelerated particles. On the vertical axis we plot the final particle Lorentz factor $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{\text{end}}$ (measured at $ct/L=8.8$ ), while the horizontal axis shows the particle injection time $ct_{0}/L$ , when the particle Lorentz factor first exceeded the threshold $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{0}=30$ of our choice. The histogram shows that the particles that eventually reach the highest energies are injected into the acceleration process around $6.5\leqslant ct_{0}/L\leqslant 6.8$ (the two boundaries are indicated with vertical dashed black lines in b,c). For our simulation, this interval corresponds to the most violent stage of ABC instability, and it shortly precedes the time when the electric energy peaks (see the dotted green line in figure 11 a) and the current sheets reach their maximum length ${\sim}L$ .Footnote ³ In order to reach the highest energies, the accelerated particles should sample the full available potential of the current sheet, by exiting the reconnection layer when it reaches its maximal extent. Since they move at the speed of light along the sheet half-length ${\sim}0.5L$ , one can estimate that they should have been injected ${\sim}0.5L/c$ earlier than the peak time of the electric field. This is indeed in agreement with figure 11 (compare (a) and (b)).

Figure 11.

Physics of particle acceleration, from a 2-D PIC simulation of ABC instability with $kT/mc^{2}=10^{-4}$ , $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}=42$ and $L=251\,r_{L,\text{hot}}$ , performed within a square domain of size $2L\times 2L$ . (a) Temporal evolution of the electric energy, in units of the total energy at the initial time. The dotted green vertical line marks the time when the electric energy peaks. (b) 2-D histogram of accelerated particles, normalized to the total number of particles. On the vertical axis we plot the final particle Lorentz factor $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{\text{end}}$ (measured at the final time $ct/L=8.8$ ), while the horizontal axis shows the particle injection time $ct_{0}/L$ , when the particle Lorentz factor first exceeded the threshold $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{0}=30$ . (c) We select all the particles that exceed the threshold $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{0}=30$ within a given time interval (chosen to be $6.5\leqslant ct_{0}/L\leqslant 6.8$ , as indicated by the vertical dashed black lines in b,c), and we plot the temporal evolution of the Lorentz factor of the ten particles that at the final time reach the highest energies.

Figure 12.

Physics of particle injection into the acceleration process, from a 2-D PIC simulation of ABC instability with $kT/mc^{2}=10^{-4}$ , $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}=42$ and $L=251\,r_{L,\text{hot}}$ , performed within a square domain of size $2L\times 2L$ (same run as in figure 11). We plot the 2-D ABC structure at $ct/L=6.65$ . (a) Two-dimensional plot of the out-of-plane field $B_{z}$ , in units of $B_{0,in}$ . Among the particles that exceed the threshold $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{0}=30$ within the interval $6.5\leqslant ct_{0}/L\leqslant 6.8$ (as indicated by the vertical dashed black lines in figure 11 b,c), we select the 20 particles that at the final time reach the highest energies, and with open white circles we plot their locations at the injection time $t_{0}$ . (b) Two-dimensional plot of the mean kinetic energy per particle $\langle \unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}-1\rangle$ . (c) Two-dimensional plot of $\boldsymbol{E}\boldsymbol{\cdot }\boldsymbol{B}/B_{0,in}^{2}$ , showing in red and yellow the regions of charge starvation. Comparison of (a) and (c) shows that particle injection is localized in the charge-starved regions.

Figure 13.

Snapshots of the numerical experiment demonstrating development of different modes of instability of 2-D ABC structures. (a–c) Parallel mode. White line, separating different layers are added as a guide. These pictures clearly demonstrate that during the development of the instability two layers of magnetic islands are shifting with respect to each other. (c,f) The compression mode. The white box demonstrates that a pair of aligned currents periodically approach each other.

Among the particles injected within $6.5\leqslant ct_{0}/L\leqslant 6.8$ , figure 11(c) shows the energy evolution of the ten positrons that reach the highest energies. We observe two distinct phases: an initial stage of direct acceleration by the reconnection electric field (at $6.5\lesssim ct/L\lesssim 7.3$ ), followed by a phase of stochastic energy gains and losses (from $ct/L\sim 7.3$ up to the end). During the second stage, the pre-accelerated particles bounce off the wobbling/merging magnetic islands, and they further increase their energy via a second-order Fermi process (similar to what was observed by Hoshino Reference Hoshino2012). At the time of injection, the selected positrons were all localized in the vicinity of the collapsing X-points. This is shown in figure 12(a), where we plot with open white circles the location of the selected positrons at the time of injection, superimposed over the 2-D pattern of $B_{z}$ at $t\sim 6.65L/c$ . In the current sheets resulting from X-point collapse the force-free condition $\boldsymbol{E}\boldsymbol{\cdot }\boldsymbol{B}=0$ is violated (see the yellow regions in figure 12 c), so that they are sites of efficient particle acceleration (see also figure 12 b, showing the mean particle kinetic energy $\langle \unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}-1\rangle$ ).

2.4.3 Dependence on the flow parameters

In this subsection, we explore the dependence of our results on the initial plasma temperature, the in-plane magnetization $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ and the ratio $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ .

Figures 14 and 15 describes the dependence of our results on the flow temperature, for a suite of three simulations of ABC collapse with fixed $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}=42$ and fixed $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}=251$ , but different plasma temperatures: $kT/mc^{2}=10^{-4}$ (blue), $kT/mc^{2}=10$ (green) and $kT/mc^{2}=10^{2}$ (red). The definitions of both the in-plane magnetization $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ and the plasma skin depth $\,c/\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}_{p}$ (and so, also the Larmor radius $r_{L,\text{hot}}$ ) account for the flow temperature, as described above. With this choice, figures 14 and 15 demonstrate that our results do not appreciably depend on the plasma temperature, apart from an overall shift in the energy scale. In particular, in the relativistic regime $kT/mc^{2}\gg 1$ , our results for different temperatures are virtually indistinguishable. The onset of the ABC instability is nearly the same for the three values of temperature we investigate (figure 14 a), the exponential growth is the same (with a rate equal to ${\sim}4c/L$ for the electric energy, compare with the dashed black line) and the peak time is quite similar (with a minor delay for the non-relativistic case $kT/mc^{2}=10^{-4}$ , in blue). At the onset of the ABC instability, the upper cutoff $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{\text{max}}$ of the particle energy spectrum grows explosively. Once normalized to the thermal value $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{th}\simeq 1+(\hat{\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}}-1)^{-1}kT/mc^{2}$ (which equals $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{th}\simeq 1$ for $kT/mc^{2}\ll 1$ and $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{th}\simeq 3kT/mc^{2}$ for $kT/mc^{2}\gg 1$ ), the temporal evolution of $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{\text{max}}$ does not appreciably depend on the initial temperature, especially in the relativistic regime $kT/mc^{2}\gg 1$ (green and red lines).

Figure 14.

Temporal evolution of the electric energy (a; in units of the total initial energy) and of the maximum particle Lorentz factor (b; $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{\text{max}}$ is defined in (2.3), and it is normalized to the thermal Lorentz factor $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{th}\simeq 1+(\hat{\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}}-1)^{-1}kT/mc^{2}$ ), for a suite of three PIC simulations of ABC collapse with fixed $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}=42$ and fixed $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}=251$ , but different plasma temperatures: $kT/mc^{2}=10^{-4}$ (blue), $kT/mc^{2}=10$ (green) and $kT/mc^{2}=10^{2}$ (red). The dashed black line in (a) shows that the electric energy grows exponentially as $\propto \exp (4ct/L)$ . The vertical dotted lines mark the time when the electric energy peaks (colours correspond to the three values of $kT/mc^{2}$ , as described above).

Figure 15.

Particle spectrum at the time when the electric energy peaks, for a suite of three PIC simulations of ABC collapse with fixed $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}=42$ and fixed $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}=251$ , but different plasma temperatures: $kT/mc^{2}=10^{-4}$ (blue), $kT/mc^{2}=10$ (green) and $kT/mc^{2}=10^{2}$ (red). The main plot shows $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}\,\text{d}N/\text{d}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}$ to emphasize the particle content, whereas the inset presents $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}^{2}\,\text{d}N/\text{d}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}$ to highlight the energy census. The dotted black line is a power law $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}\,\text{d}N/\text{d}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}\propto \unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}^{-1}$ , corresponding to equal energy content per decade (which would result in a flat distribution in the inset). The particle Lorentz factor on the horizontal axis is normalized to the thermal value $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{th}$ , to facilitate comparison among the three cases.

Similar conclusions hold for the particle spectrum $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}\,\text{d}N/\text{d}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}$ at the time when the electric energy peaks, presented in the main panel of figure 15. The spectra of $kT/mc^{2}=10$ (green) and $kT/mc^{2}=10^{2}$ (red) overlap, once the horizontal axis is normalized to the thermal Lorentz factor $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{th}$ . Their high-energy end approaches the slope $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}\,\text{d}N/\text{d}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}\propto \unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}^{-1}$ indicated with the dotted black line. This corresponds to a distribution with equal energy content per decade (which would result in a flat distribution in the inset, where we plot $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}^{2}\text{d}N/\text{d}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}$ to emphasize the energy census). The spectrum for $kT/mc^{2}=10^{-4}$ (blue line) is marginally harder, but its high-energy part is remarkably similar.

Figure 16.

Two-dimensional pattern of the out-of-plane field $B_{z}$ (in units of $B_{0,in}$ ) at the most violent time of ABC instability (i.e. when the electric energy peaks, as indicated by the vertical dotted lines in figure 17) from a suite of PIC simulations. In (a,c,e,g), we fix $kT/mc^{2}=10^{-4}$ and $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}=42$ and we vary the ratio $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ , from 31 to 251 (from top to bottom). In (b,d,f,h), we fix $kT/mc^{2}=10^{2}$ and $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}=63$ and we vary the magnetization $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ , from 3 to 170 (from top to bottom). In all cases, the domain is a square of size $2L\times 2L$ . The 2-D structure of $B_{z}$ in all cases is quite similar, apart from the fact that larger $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ tend to lead to a more pronounced fragmentation of the current sheet. Some cases go unstable via the ‘parallel’ mode depicted in figure 3, others via the ‘oblique’ mode described in figure 2.

We now investigate the dependence of our results on the magnetization $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ and the ratio $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ , where $r_{L,\text{hot}}=\sqrt{\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}}\,c/\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}_{p}$ . In figure 16, we present the 2-D pattern of the out-of-plane field $B_{z}$ (in units of $B_{0,in}$ ) at the most violent time of ABC instability (i.e. when the electric energy peaks, as indicated by the vertical dotted lines in figure 17) from a suite of PIC simulations in a square domain $2L\times 2L$ . In (a,c,e,g), we fix $kT/mc^{2}=10^{-4}$ and $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}=42$ and we vary the ratio $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ , from 31 to 251 (from top to bottom). In (b,d,f,h), we fix $kT/mc^{2}=10^{2}$ and $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}=63$ and we vary the magnetization $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ , from 3 to 170 (from top to bottom). The figure shows that the instability proceeds in a similar way in all the runs, even though some cases go unstable via the ‘parallel’ mode depicted in figure 3 (e.g. see the top right panel), others via the ‘oblique’ mode described in figure 2 (e.g. see the bottom left panel). Here, ‘parallel’ and ‘oblique’ refer to the orientation of the wavevector with respect to the axes of the box.

Figure 17.

Temporal evolution of the electric energy (a,b; in units of the total initial energy) and of the maximum particle Lorentz factor (c,d; $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{\text{max}}$ is defined in (2.3), and it is normalized to the thermal Lorentz factor $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{th}\simeq 1+(\hat{\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}}-1)^{-1}kT/mc^{2}$ ), for a suite of PIC simulations of ABC collapse (same runs as in figure 16). In (a,c), we fix $kT/mc^{2}=10^{-4}$ and $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}=42$ and we vary the ratio $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ from 31 to 251 (from blue to red). In (b,d), we fix $kT/mc^{2}=10^{2}$ and $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}=63$ and we vary the magnetization $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ from 3 to 170 (from blue to red). The maximum particle energy resulting from ABC collapse increases for increasing $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ at fixed $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ (a,c) and for increasing $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ at fixed $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ . The dashed black line in (a,c) shows that the electric energy grows exponentially as $\propto \exp (4ct/L)$ . The vertical dotted lines mark the time when the electric energy peaks (colours as described above).

The evolution is remarkably similar, whether the instability proceeds via the parallel or the oblique mode. Yet, some differences can be found: (i) in the oblique mode, all the null points are activated, i.e. they all evolve into a long thin current sheet suitable for particle acceleration; in contrast, in the parallel mode only half of the null points are activated (e.g. the null point at $x=0$ and $y=0.5L$ in the top right panel does not form a current sheet, and we have verified that it does not lead to significant particle acceleration). Everything else being equal, this results in a difference by a factor of two in the normalization of the high-energy tail of accelerated particles (i.e. the acceleration efficiency differs by a factor of two), as we have indeed verified. (ii) The current sheets of the parallel mode tend to stretch longer than for the oblique mode (by approximately a factor of $\sqrt{2}$ ), resulting in a difference of a factor of $\sqrt{2}$ in the maximum particle energy, everything else being the same. (iii) In the explosive phase of the instability, the oblique mode tends to dissipate some fraction of the out-of-plane field energy (still, a minor fraction as compared to the dissipated in-plane energy), whereas the parallel mode does not. Regardless of such differences, both modes result in efficient particle acceleration and heating, and in a similar temporal evolution of the rate of magnetic energy dissipation (with the kinetic energy fraction reaching $\unicode[STIX]{x1D716}_{\text{kin}}/\unicode[STIX]{x1D716}_{\text{tot}}(0)\sim 0.1$ during the explosive phase, and eventually saturating at $\unicode[STIX]{x1D716}_{\text{kin}}/\unicode[STIX]{x1D716}_{\text{tot}}(0)\sim 0.5$ ).

The 2-D pattern of $B_{z}$ shown in figure 16 shows a tendency for thinner current sheets at larger $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ , when fixing $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ (figure 16 a,c,e,g). Roughly, the thickness of the current sheet is set by the Larmor radius $r_{L,\text{hot}}$ of the high-energy particles heated/accelerated by reconnection. In (b,d,f,h), with $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ fixed, the thickness of the current sheet is then a fixed fraction of the box size. In contrast, in (a,c,e,g), the ratio of current sheet thickness to box size will scale as $r_{L,\text{hot}}/L$ , as indeed it is observed. A long thin current sheet is expected to fragment into a chain of plasmoids/magnetic islands (e.g. Uzdensky et al. Reference Uzdensky, Loureiro and Schekochihin2010; Werner et al. Reference Werner, Uzdensky, Cerutti, Nalewajko and Begelman2016), when the length-to-thickness ratio is much larger than unity.Footnote ⁴ It follows that the cases in (b,d,f,h) will display a similar tendency for fragmentation (and in particular, they do not appreciably fragment), whereas the likelihood of fragmentation is expected to increase from top to bottom in (a,c,e,g). In fact, for the case with $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}=251$ (g), a number of small-scale plasmoids appear in the current sheets (e.g. see the plasmoid at $x=0$ and $y=-0.5L$ in g). We find that as long as $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}\gg 1$ , the secondary tearing mode discussed by Uzdensky et al. (Reference Uzdensky, Loureiro and Schekochihin2010) – that leads to current sheet fragmentation – appears at $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}\gtrsim 200$ , in the case of ABC collapse.Footnote ⁵ In addition to the runs presented in figure 16, we have confirmed this result by covering the whole $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}-L/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ parameter space, with $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ from 3 to 680 and with $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ from 31 to 502.

We have performed an additional test to check that the current sheet thickness scales as $r_{L,\text{hot}}$ . When the reconnection layers reach their maximal extent (i.e. at the peak of the electric energy), the current sheet length should scale as $L$ , whereas its thickness should be ${\sim}r_{L,\text{hot}}$ . Since the current sheets are characterized by a field-aligned electric field (figure 12 c), the fraction of box area occupied by regions with $\boldsymbol{E}\boldsymbol{\cdot }\boldsymbol{B}\neq 0$ should scale as $r_{L,\text{hot}}/L$ . We have explicitly verified that this is indeed the case, both when comparing runs that have the same $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ and for simulations that keep $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ fixed.

The reconnection rate in all the cases we have explored is around $v_{\text{rec}}/c\sim 0.3-0.5$ . It shows a marginal tendency for decreasing with increasing $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ (but we have verified that it saturates at $v_{\text{rec}}/c\sim 0.3$ in the limit $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}\gg 1$ ), and it moderately increases with $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ (especially as we transition from the non-relativistic regime to the relativistic regime, but it saturates at $v_{\text{rec}}/c\sim 0.5$ in the limit $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}\gg 1$ ). Our measurements of the inflow speed (which we take as a proxy for the reconnection rate) are easier when the parallel mode dominates, since the inflow direction lies along one of the Cartesian axes, rather than for the oblique mode. In simulations with an aspect ratio of $2L\times L$ , the parallel mode is the only one that gets triggered, and most of the measurements quoted above refer to this set-up.

In figure 17 we present the temporal evolution of the runs whose 2-D structure is shown in figure 16. In (a,c), we fix $kT/mc^{2}=10^{-4}$ and $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}=42$ and we vary the ratio $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ from 31 to 251 (from blue to red). In (b,d), we fix $kT/mc^{2}=10^{2}$ and $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}=63$ and we vary the magnetization $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ from 3 to 170 (from blue to red). (a,b) Show that the evolution of the electric energy (in units of the total initial energy) is remarkably similar for all the values of $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ and $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ we explore. In particular, the electric energy grows as $\propto \exp (4ct/L)$ in all the cases (see the dashed black lines), and it peaks at ${\sim}10\,\%$ of the total initial energy. The only exception is the trans-relativistic case $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}=3$ and $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}=63$ (blue line in b), whose peak value is slightly smaller, due to the lower Alfvén speed. The onset time of the instability is also nearly independent of $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ (b), although the trans-relativistic case $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}=3$ (blue line) seems to be growing slightly later. As regard to the dependence of the onset time on $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ at fixed $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ , figure 17(a) shows that larger values of $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ tend to grow later, but the variation is only moderate: in all the cases the instability grows around $ct/L\sim 5$ .

In the early stages of ABC instability, the cutoff Lorentz factor $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{\text{max}}$ of the particle energy spectrum (as defined in (2.3)) grows explosively (see figure 17 c,d). If the origin of time is set at the onset time of the instability, the maximum energy is expected to grow as

Due to the approximate linear increase of the in-plane magnetic field with distance from a null point, we find that $B_{in}\propto \sqrt{\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}}v_{\text{rec}}t/L$ . This leads to $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{\text{max}}\propto v_{\text{rec}}^{2}\sqrt{\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}}t^{2}/L$ , with the same quadratic temporal scaling that was discussed for the solitary X-point collapse. Since the dynamical phase of ABC instability lasts a few $L/c$ , the maximum particle Lorentz factor at the end of this stage should scale as $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{\text{max}}\propto v_{\text{rec}}^{2}\sqrt{\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}}L\propto v_{\text{rec}}^{2}\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}(L/r_{L,\text{hot}})$ . If the reconnection rate does not significantly depend on $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ , this implies that $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{\text{max}}\propto L$ at fixed $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ . The trend for an increasing $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{\text{max}}$ with $L$ at fixed $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ is confirmed in figure 17(c), both at the final time and at the peak time of the electric energy (which is slightly different among the four different cases, see the vertical dotted coloured lines).Footnote ⁶ Similarly, if the reconnection rate does not significantly depend on $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ , this implies that $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{\text{max}}\propto \unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ at fixed $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ . This linear dependence of $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{\text{max}}$ on $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ is confirmed in figure 17(d).

Figure 18.

Particle spectrum at the time when the electric energy peaks, for a suite of PIC simulations of ABC collapse (same runs as in figures 16 and 17). In (a) we fix $kT/mc^{2}=10^{-4}$ and $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}=42$ and we vary the ratio $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ from 31 to 251 (from blue to red, as indicated by the legend). In (b) we fix $kT/mc^{2}=10^{2}$ and $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}=63$ and we vary the magnetization $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ from 3 to 170 (from blue to red, as indicated by the legend). The main plot shows $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}\,\text{d}N/\text{d}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}$ to emphasize the particle content, whereas the inset presents $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}^{2}\,\text{d}N/\text{d}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}$ to highlight the energy census. The dotted black line is a power law $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}\,\text{d}N/\text{d}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}\propto \unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}^{-1}$ , corresponding to equal energy content per decade (which would result in a flat distribution in the insets). The spectral hardness is not a sensitive function of the ratio $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ , but it is strongly dependent on $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ , with higher magnetizations giving harder spectra, up to the saturation slope of $-1$ .

The dependence of the particle spectrum on $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ and $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ is illustrated in figure 18 ((a) and (b), respectively), where we present the particle energy distribution at the time when the electric energy peaks (as indicated by the coloured vertical dotted lines in figure 17). The particle spectrum shows a pronounced non-thermal component in all the cases, regardless of whether the secondary plasmoid instability is triggered or not in the current sheets (the results presented in figure 18 correspond to the cases displayed in figure 16). This suggests that in our set-up any acceleration mechanism that relies on plasmoid mergers is not very important, but rather that the dominant source of energy is direct acceleration by the reconnection electric field (see the previous subsection).

At the time when the electric energy peaks, most of the particles are still in the thermal component (at $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}\sim 1$ in (a) and $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}\sim 3kT/mc^{2}$ in figure 18 b), i.e. bulk heating is still negligible. Yet, a dramatic event of particle acceleration is taking place, with a few lucky particles accelerated much beyond the mean energy per particle ${\sim}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{th}\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}/2$ (for comparison, we point out that $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{th}\sim 1$ and $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}=42$ for the cases in a). Since most of the particles are at the thermal peak, this is not violating energy conservation. As described by Sironi & Spitkovsky (Reference Sironi and Spitkovsky2014) and Werner et al. (Reference Werner, Uzdensky, Cerutti, Nalewajko and Begelman2016), for a power-law spectrum $\text{d}N/\text{d}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}\propto \unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}^{-p}$ of index $1<p<2$ extending from $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}\sim \unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{th}$ up to $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{\text{max}}$ , the fact that the mean energy per particle is $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{th}\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}/2$ yields a constraint on the upper cutoff of the form

This constraint does not apply during the explosive phase, since most of the particles lie at the thermal peak (so, the distribution does not resemble a single power law), but it does apply at late times (e.g. see the final spectrum in figure 10, similar to a power law). However, as the bulk of the particles shift up to higher energies (see the evolution of the thermal peak in figure 10), the spectrum at late times tends to be softer than in the early explosive phase (compare light blue and red curves in figure 10), which helps relaxing the constraint in (2.3).

The spectra in figure 18 (main panels for $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}\,\text{d}N/\text{d}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}$ , to emphasize the particle content; insets for $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}^{2}\,\text{d}N/\text{d}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}$ , to highlight the energy census) confirm the trend of $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{\text{max}}$ anticipated above. At fixed $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}=42$ (a), we see that $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{\text{max}}\propto L$ ( $L$ changes by a factor of two in between each pair of curves);Footnote ⁷ on the other hand, at fixed $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}=63$ (b), we find that $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{\text{max}}\propto \unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ ( $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ changes by a factor of four in between each pair of curves).

The spectral hardness is primarily controlled by the average in-plane magnetization $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ . Figure 18(b) shows that at fixed $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ the spectrum becomes systematically harder with increasing $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ , approaching the asymptotic shape $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}\text{d}N/\text{d}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}\propto \text{const}$ found for plane-parallel steady-state reconnection in the limit of high magnetizations (Sironi & Spitkovsky Reference Sironi and Spitkovsky2014; Guo et al. Reference Guo, Liu, Daughton and Li2015; Werner et al. Reference Werner, Uzdensky, Cerutti, Nalewajko and Begelman2016). At large $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ , the hard spectrum of the high- $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ cases will necessarily run into constraints of energy conservation (see (2.3)), unless the pressure feedback of the accelerated particles onto the flow structure ultimately leads to a spectral softening (in analogy to the case of cosmic ray modified shocks, see Amato & Blasi Reference Amato and Blasi2006). This argument seems to be supported by figure 18(a). At fixed $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ (a), the spectral slope is nearly insensitive to $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ . The only (marginal) evidence for a direct dependence on $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ emerges at large $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ , with larger systems leading to steeper slopes (compare the yellow and red lines in a), which possibly reconciles the increase in $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{\text{max}}$ with the argument of energy conservation illustrated in (2.3).

In application to the GeV flares of the Crab Nebula, which we attribute to the explosive phase of ABC instability, we envision an optimal value of $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ between ${\sim}10$ and ${\sim}100$ . Based on our results, smaller $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}\lesssim 10$ would correspond to smaller reconnection speeds (in units of the speed of light), and so weaker accelerating electric fields. On the other hand, $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}\gtrsim 100$ would give hard spectra with slopes $p<2$ , which would prohibit particle acceleration up to $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{\text{max}}\gg \unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{th}$ without violating energy conservation (for the sake of simplicity, here we ignore the potential spectral softening at high $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ and large $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ discussed above).

As we have mentioned above, we invoke the early phases of ABC collapse as an explanation for the Crab GeV flares. As shown in figure 10, after this initial stage the maximum particle energy is only increasing by a factor of three (on long time scales, of order ${\sim}10L/c$ ). When properly accounting for the rapid synchrotron losses of the highest-energy particles (which our simulations do not take into account), it is even questionable whether the spectrum will ever evolve to higher energies, after the initial collapse. This is the reason why we have focused most of our attention on how the spectrum at the most violent time of ABC instability depends on $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ or $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ . For the sake of completeness, we now describe how the spectrum at late times (corresponding to figure 8 f) depends on the flow conditions. In analogy to what we have described above, the effect of different $kT/mc^{2}$ is only to change the overall energy scale, and the results are nearly insensitive to the flow temperature, as long as $\,c/\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}_{p}$ and $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ properly account for temperature effects. The role of $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ and $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ can be understood from the following simple argument (see also Sironi & Spitkovsky Reference Sironi and Spitkovsky2011). In the $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}\lesssim 10{-}100$ cases in which the spectral slope is always $p>2$ and the high-energy spectral cutoff is not constrained by energy conservation, we have argued that $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{\text{max}}/\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{th}\propto \unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}(L/r_{L,\text{hot}})$ (here, we have neglected the dependence on the reconnection speed, for the sake of simplicity). As a result of bulk heating, the thermal peak of the particle distribution shifts at late times – during the island mergers that follow the initial explosive phase – from $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{th}$ up to ${\sim}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{th}\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}/2$ . By comparing the final location of the thermal peak with $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{\text{max}}$ , one concludes that there must be a critical value of $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ such that for small $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ the final spectrum is close to a Maxwellian, whereas for large values of $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ the non-thermal component established during the explosive phase is still visible at late times. We have validated this argument with our results, finding that this critical threshold for the shape of the final spectrum is around $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}\sim 100$ .

3.3.1 Two-dimensional ABC structures with initial shear

Next we investigate a driven evolution of the ABC structures using PIC simulations. Inspired by the development of the oblique mode described in figure 2, we set-up our system with an initial velocity in the oblique direction, so that two neighbouring chains of ABC islands will shear with respect to each other. More precisely, we set-up an initial velocity profile of the form

and we explore the effect of different values of $v_{\text{push}}$ .Footnote ⁹

Figure 26 shows that the evolution of the electric energy ((a), in units of the total initial energy) is remarkably independent of $v_{\text{push}}$ , apart from an overall shift in the onset time. In all the cases, the electric energy grows exponentially as $\propto \text{exp}\,(4ct/L)$ (compare with the black dashed line) until it peaks at ${\sim}10\,\%$ of the total initial energy (the time when the electric energy peaks is indicated with the vertical coloured dotted lines). In parallel, the maximum particle energy $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{\text{max}}$ grows explosively (figure 26 b), with a temporal profile that is nearly identical in all the cases (once again, apart from an overall time shift). The initial value of the electric energy scales as $v_{\text{push}}^{2}$ for large $v_{\text{push}}$ (black for $v_{\text{push}}/c=10^{-1}$ and blue for $v_{\text{push}}/c=10^{-2}$ ), just as a consequence of the electric field $-\boldsymbol{v}_{\text{push}}\times \boldsymbol{B}/c$ that we initialize. At smaller values of $v_{\text{push}}$ , the initial value of the electric energy is independent of $v_{\text{push}}$ (green to red curves in a). Here, we are sensitive to the electric field required to build up the particle currents implied by the steady ABC set-up. Overall, the similarity of the different curves in figure 26 (all the way to the undriven case of $v_{\text{push}}=0$ , in red) confirms that the oblique ‘shearing’ mode is a natural instability avenue for 2-D ABC structures.

As a consequence, it is not surprising that the particle spectrum measured at the time when the electric energy peaks (as indicated by the vertical coloured lines in figure 26) bears no memory of the driving speed $v_{\text{push}}$ . In fact, the five curves in figure 27 nearly overlap.

Figure 27.

Particle spectrum at the time when the electric energy peaks, for a suite of five PIC simulations of ABC collapse with fixed $kT/mc^{2}=10^{2}$ , $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}=42$ and $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}=126$ , but different magnitudes of the initial velocity shear (same runs as in figure 26): $v_{\text{push}}/c=10^{-1}$ (black), $v_{\text{push}}/c=10^{-2}$ (blue), $v_{\text{push}}/c=10^{-3}$ (green), $v_{\text{push}}/c=10^{-4}$ (yellow) and $v_{\text{push}}/c=0$ (red). The main plot shows $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}\,\text{d}N/\text{d}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}$ to emphasize the particle content, whereas the inset presents $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}^{2}\text{d}N/\text{d}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}$ to highlight the energy census. The dotted black line is a power law $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}\,\text{d}N/\text{d}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}\propto \unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}^{-1}$ , corresponding to equal energy content per decade (which would result in a flat distribution in the inset).

Figure 28.

Temporal evolution of the instability of a typical 2-D ABC structure (time is indicated in the grey box of a–f) with an initial stress of $\unicode[STIX]{x1D706}=0.94$ (see Paper I for the definition of $\unicode[STIX]{x1D706}$ in the context of solitary X-point collapse). The plot presents the 2-D pattern of the out-of-plane field $B_{z}$ (in units of $B_{0,in}$ ) from a PIC simulation with $kT/mc^{2}=10^{-4}$ , $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}=42$ and $L=126\,r_{L,\text{hot}}$ , performed within a domain of size $2L\times 2\unicode[STIX]{x1D706}L$ . The system is initially squeezed along the $y$ direction. This leads to X-point collapse and formation of current sheets (see the current sheet at $x=0$ and $y=0.5L$ in b). The resulting reconnection outflows push away neighbouring magnetic structures (the current sheet at $x=0$ and $y=0.5L$ pushes away the two blue islands at $y=0.5L$ and $x=\pm 0.5L$ ). The system is now squeezed along the $x$ direction (c), and it goes unstable on a dynamical time (d), similarly to the case of spontaneous (i.e. unstressed) ABC instability. The subsequent evolution closely resembles the case of spontaneous ABC instability shown in figure 8.

Figure 29.

Temporal evolution of various quantities, from a 2-D PIC simulation of ABC instability with $kT/mc^{2}=10^{-4}$ , $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}=42$ and $L=126\,r_{L,\text{hot}}$ and stress parameter $\unicode[STIX]{x1D706}=0.94$ , performed within a domain of size $2L\times 2\unicode[STIX]{x1D706}L$ (the same run as in figure 28). (a) Fraction of energy in magnetic fields (solid blue), in-plane magnetic fields (dashed blue, with $\unicode[STIX]{x1D716}_{B,in}=\unicode[STIX]{x1D716}_{B}/2$ in the initial configuration), electric fields (green) and particles (red; excluding the rest mass energy), in units of the total initial energy. (b) Evolution of the maximum Lorentz factor $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{\text{max}}$ , as defined in (2.3), relative to the thermal Lorentz factor $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{th}\simeq 1+(\hat{\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}}-1)^{-1}kT/mc^{2}$ , which for our case is $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{th}\simeq 1$ . The early growth of $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{\text{max}}$ up to $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{\text{max}}/\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{th}\sim 1.5\times 10^{2}$ is due to particle acceleration at the current sheets induced by the initial stress. The subsequent development of the ABC instability at $ct/L\simeq 4$ is accompanied by little field dissipation ( $\unicode[STIX]{x1D716}_{\text{kin}}/\unicode[STIX]{x1D716}_{\text{tot}}(0)\sim 0.1$ ) but dramatic particle acceleration, up to $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{\text{max}}/\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{th}\sim 10^{3}$ . In (a,b), the vertical dotted black line indicates the time when the electric energy peaks.

3.3.2 Two-dimensional ABC structures with initial stress

We now investigate the evolution of ABC structures in the presence of an initial stress, quantified by the stress parameter $\unicode[STIX]{x1D706}$ (see Paper I for the definition of $\unicode[STIX]{x1D706}$ in the context of solitary X-point collapse). The unstressed cases discussed so far would correspond to $\unicode[STIX]{x1D706}=1$ . The simulation box will be a rectangle with size $2L$ along the $x$ direction and $2\unicode[STIX]{x1D706}L$ along the $y$ direction, with periodic boundary conditions.

Figure 28 shows the temporal evolution of the 2-D pattern of the out-of-plane field $B_{z}$ (in units of $B_{0,in}$ ) from a PIC simulation with $kT/mc^{2}=10^{-4}$ , $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}=42$ and $L=126\,r_{L,\text{hot}}$ . The system is initially squeezed along the $y$ direction, with a stress parameter of $\unicode[STIX]{x1D706}=0.94$ (a). The initial stress leads to X-point collapse and formation of current sheets (see the current sheet at $x=0$ and $y=0.5L$ in b). This early phase results in a minimal amount of magnetic energy dissipation (see figure 29 a, with the solid blue line indicating the magnetic energy and the red line indicating the particle kinetic energy), but significant particle acceleration. As indicated in figure 29(b), the high-energy cutoff $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{\text{max}}$ of the particle distribution grows quickly (within one dynamical time) up to $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{\text{max}}/\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{th}\sim 1.5\times 10^{2}$ . At this point ( $ct/L\gtrsim 1$ ), the increase in the maximum particle energy stalls. In figure 28, we find that this corresponds to a phase in which the system tends to counteract the initial stress. In particular, the reconnection outflows emanating from the current sheets in figure 28(b) push away neighbouring magnetic structures (the current sheet at $x=0$ and $y=0.5L$ pushes away the two blue islands at $y=0.5L$ and $x=\pm 0.5L$ ). The system gets squeezed along the $x$ direction (c), i.e. the stress is now opposite to the initial stress. Shortly thereafter, the ABC structure goes unstable on a dynamical time scale (d), with a pattern similar to the case of spontaneous (i.e. unstressed) ABC instability. In particular, figure 28(d) shows that in this case the instability proceeds via the ‘parallel’ mode depicted in figure 3 (but other simulations are dominated by the ‘oblique’ mode sketched in figure 2). The subsequent evolution closely resembles the case of spontaneous ABC instability shown in figure 8, with the current sheets stretching up to a length ${\sim}L$ and the merger of islands having the same $B_{z}$ polarity (figure 28 e), until only two regions remain in the box, with $B_{z}$ fields of opposite polarity (figure 28 f).

The second stage of evolution – resembling the spontaneous instability of unstressed ABC structures – leads to a dramatic episode of particle acceleration (see the growth in $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{\text{max}}$ in figure 29(b) at $ct/L\sim 4$ ), with the energy spectral cutoff extending beyond $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{\text{max}}/\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{th}\sim 10^{3}$ within one dynamical time. This fast increase in $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{\text{max}}$ is indeed reminiscent of what we had observed in the case of unstressed ABC instability (compare with figure 9 b at $ct/L\sim 5$ ). In analogy to the case of unstressed ABC structures, the instability leads to dramatic particle acceleration, but only minor energy dissipation (the mean kinetic energy reaches a fraction ${\sim}0.1$ of the overall energy budget). Additional dissipation of magnetic energy into particle heat (but without much non-thermal particle acceleration) occurs at later times ( $ct/L\gtrsim 6$ ) during subsequent island mergers, once again imitating the evolution of unstressed ABC instability.

Figure 30.

Particle spectrum and synchrotron spectrum from a 2-D PIC simulation of ABC instability with $kT/mc^{2}=10^{-4}$ , $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}=42$ and $L=126\,r_{L,\text{hot}}$ and stress parameter $\unicode[STIX]{x1D706}=0.94$ , performed within a domain of size $2L\times 2\unicode[STIX]{x1D706}L$ (the same run as in figures 28 and 29). Time is measured in units of $L/c$ , see the colour bar at the top. (a) Evolution of the electron energy spectrum normalized to the total number of electrons. At late times, the spectrum approaches a distribution of the form $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}\,\text{d}N/\text{d}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}\propto \unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}^{-1}$ , corresponding to equal energy content in each decade of $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}$ (compare with the dotted black line). The inset in (a) shows the electron momentum spectrum along different directions (as indicated in the legend), at the time when the electric energy peaks (as indicated by the dotted black line in figure 29). (b) Evolution of the angle-averaged synchrotron spectrum emitted by electrons. The frequency on the horizontal axis is normalized to $\unicode[STIX]{x1D708}_{B,in}=\sqrt{\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}}\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}_{p}/2\unicode[STIX]{x03C0}$ . At late times, the synchrotron spectrum approaches $\unicode[STIX]{x1D708}L_{\unicode[STIX]{x1D708}}\propto \unicode[STIX]{x1D708}^{1/2}$ (compare with the dotted black line), which just follows from the electron spectrum $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}\,\text{d}N/\text{d}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}\propto \unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}^{-1}$ . The inset in (b) shows the synchrotron spectrum at the time indicated in figure 29 (dotted black line) along different directions (within a solid angle of $\unicode[STIX]{x0394}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FA}/4\unicode[STIX]{x03C0}\sim 3\times 10^{-3}$ ), as indicated in the legend in the inset of (a).

The two distinct evolutionary phases – the early stage driven by the initial stress, and the subsequent dynamical ABC collapse resembling the unstressed case – are clearly apparent in the evolution of the particle energy spectrum (figure 30 a) and of the angle-averaged synchrotron emission (figure 30 b). The initial stress drives fast particle acceleration at the resulting current sheets (from black to dark blue in a). Once the stress reverses, as part of the self-consistent evolution of the system (figure 28 b), the particle energy spectrum freezes (see the clustering of the dark blue lines). Correspondingly, the angle-averaged synchrotron spectrum stops evolving (see the clustering of the dark blue lines in b). A second dramatic increase in the particle and emission spectral cutoff (even more dramatic than the initial growth) occurs between $ct/L\sim 3$ and $ct/L\sim 6$ (dark blue to cyan curves in figure 30), and it directly corresponds to the phase of ABC instability resembling the unstressed case. The particle spectrum quickly extends up to $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{\text{max}}\sim 10^{3}$ (cyan lines in a), and correspondingly the peak of the $\unicode[STIX]{x1D708}L_{\unicode[STIX]{x1D708}}$ emission spectrum shifts up to ${\sim}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{\text{max}}^{2}\unicode[STIX]{x1D708}_{B,in}\sim 10^{6}\unicode[STIX]{x1D708}_{B,in}$ (cyan lines in b). At times later than $c/L\sim 6$ , the evolution proceeds slower, similarly to the case of unstressed ABC instability: the high-energy cutoff in the particle spectrum shifts up by only a factor of three before saturating (green to red curves in a), and the peak frequency of the synchrotron spectrum increases by less than a factor of ten (green to red curves in b). Rather than non-thermal particle acceleration, the late evolution is accompanied by substantial heating of the bulk of the particles, with the peak of the particle spectrum shifting from $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}\sim 1$ up to $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}\sim 10$ after $ct/L\sim 6$ (see also the red line in figure 29(a) at $ct/L\gtrsim 6$ , indicating efficient particle heating). Once again, this closely parallels the late time evolution of unstressed ABC instability.

Finally, we point out that the particle distribution at the time when the electric energy peaks (indicated by the vertical dotted line in figure 29) is nearly isotropic, as indicated by the inset in figure 30(a). In turn, this results in quasi-isotropic synchrotron emission (inset in b). We refer to the unstressed case in figure 10 for an explanation of this result, which is peculiar to the ABC geometry employed here.

Figure 31.

Temporal evolution of the electric energy (a) (in units of the total initial energy) and of the maximum particle Lorentz factor (b) ( $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{\text{max}}$ is defined in (2.3), and it is normalized to the thermal Lorentz factor $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{th}\simeq 1+(\hat{\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}}-1)^{-1}kT/mc^{2}$ ), for a suite of five PIC simulations of ABC collapse with fixed $kT/mc^{2}=10^{-4}$ , $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}=42$ and $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}=126$ , but different magnitudes of the initial stress: $\unicode[STIX]{x1D706}=0.78$ (black), 0.87 (blue), 0.94 (green), 0.97 (yellow) and 1 (red; i.e. unstressed). The early phases (until $ct/L\sim 3$ ) bear memory of the prescribed stress parameter $\unicode[STIX]{x1D706}$ , whereas the evolution subsequent to the ABC collapse at $ct/L\sim 4$ is remarkably similar for different values of $\unicode[STIX]{x1D706}$ . The dashed black line in (a) shows that the electric energy grows exponentially as $\propto \exp (4ct/L)$ , during the dynamical phase of the ABC instability. The vertical dotted lines mark the time when the electric energy peaks (colors correspond to the five values of $\unicode[STIX]{x1D706}$ , as described above; the black, green and yellow vertical lines overlap).

Figure 32.

Particle spectrum at the time when the electric energy peaks, for a suite of five simulations of ABC collapse with fixed $kT/mc^{2}=10^{-4}$ , $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}=42$ and $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}=126$ , but different magnitudes of the initial stress (same runs as in figure 31): $\unicode[STIX]{x1D706}=0.78$ (black), 0.87 (blue), 0.94 (green), 0.97 (yellow) and 1 (red; i.e. unstressed). The main plot shows $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}\,\text{d}N/\text{d}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}$ to emphasize the particle content, whereas the inset presents $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}^{2}\text{d}N/\text{d}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}$ to highlight the energy census. The dotted black line is a power law $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}\,\text{d}N/\text{d}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}\propto \unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}^{-1}$ , corresponding to equal energy content per decade (which would result in a flat distribution in the inset). The particle spectrum at the time when the electric energy peaks has little dependence on the initial stress parameter $\unicode[STIX]{x1D706}$ , and it resembles the result of the spontaneous ABC instability (red curve).

We conclude this subsection by investigating the effect of the initial stress, as quantified by the squeezing parameter $\unicode[STIX]{x1D706}$ . In figures 31 and 32, we present the results of a suite of five PIC simulations of ABC collapse with fixed $kT/mc^{2}=10^{-4}$ , $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}=42$ and $L/r_{L,\text{hot}}=126$ , but different magnitudes of the initial stress: $\unicode[STIX]{x1D706}=0.78$ (black), 0.87 (blue), 0.94 (green), 0.97 (yellow) and 1 (red; i.e. unstressed). In all the cases, the early phase (until $ct/L\sim 3$ ) bears memory of the prescribed stress parameter $\unicode[STIX]{x1D706}$ . In particular, the value of the electric energy at early times increases for decreasing $\unicode[STIX]{x1D706}$ (figure 31 a at $ct/L\lesssim 3$ ), as the initial stress becomes stronger. In parallel, the process of particle acceleration initiated at the stressed X-points leads to a maximum particle energy $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{\text{max}}$ that reaches higher values for stronger stresses (i.e. smaller $\unicode[STIX]{x1D706}$ , see figure 31 b at $ct/L\lesssim 3$ ). While the early stage is sensitive to the value of the initial stress, the dramatic evolution happening at $ct/L\sim 4$ is remarkably similar for all the values of $\unicode[STIX]{x1D706}\neq 1$ explored in figure 31 (black to yellow curves). In all the cases, the electric energy grows exponentially as $\propto \text{exp}(4ct/L)$ . Both the growth rate and the peak level of the electric energy ( ${\sim}0.1$ of the total energy) are remarkably insensitive to $\unicode[STIX]{x1D706}$ , and they resemble the unstressed case $\unicode[STIX]{x1D706}=1$ (red curve in figure 31), aside from a temporal offset of ${\sim}2L/c$ . The fast evolution occurring at $ct/L\sim 4$ leads to dramatic particle acceleration (figure 31 b), with the high-energy spectral cutoff reaching $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{\text{max}}\sim 10^{3}$ within a dynamical time, once again imitating the results of the unstressed case, aside from a temporal shift of ${\sim}2L/c$ .

As we have just described, the electric energy peaks during the second phase, when the stressed systems evolve in close similarity with the unstressed set-up. In figure 32, we present a comparison of the particle spectra for different $\unicode[STIX]{x1D706}$ (as indicated in the legend), measured at the peak time of the electric energy (as indicated by the vertical dotted lines in figure 31). The spectral shape for all the stressed cases is nearly identical, especially if the initial stress is not too strong (i.e. with the only exception of the black line, corresponding to $\unicode[STIX]{x1D706}=0.78$ ). In addition, the spectral cutoff is in remarkable agreement with the result of the unstressed set-up (red curve in figure 32), confirming that the evolution of the stressed cases closely parallels the spontaneous ABC instability.

We conclude that this set-up – with an initially imposed stress – does not introduce additional advantages in driving the instability of the ABC structure (unlike the shearing set-up described in the previous subsection, which directly leads to ABC collapse). Still, the perturbation imposed onto the system eventually leads to ABC instability, which proceeds in close analogy to the unstressed case. Particle acceleration to the highest energies is not achieved in the initial phase, which still bears memory of the imposed stress, but rather in the quasi-spontaneous ABC collapse at later times. In order to further test this claim, we have performed the following experiment. After the initial evolution (driven by the imposed stress), we artificially reduce the energies of the highest-energy particles (but still keeping them ultra-relativistic, to approximately preserve the electric currents). The subsequent evolution of the high-energy particle spectrum is similar to what we observe when we do not artificially ‘cool’ the particles, which is another confirmation of the fact that the long-term physics is independent from the initial stress.

4.1.1 Merger of Lundquist’s magnetic ropes

First we consider Lundquist’s force-free cylinders, surrounded by uniform magnetic field,

Here, $J_{0},J_{1}$ are Bessel functions of zeroth and first order and the constant $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FC}\simeq 3.8317$ is the first root of $J_{0}$ . We chose to terminate this solution at the first zero of $J_{1}$ , which we denote as $r_{j}$ and hence continue with $B_{z}=B_{z}(r_{j})$ and $B_{\unicode[STIX]{x1D719}}=0$ for $r>r_{j}$ . Thus the total current of the flux tube is zero. As the result, the azimuthal field vanishes at the boundary of the rope, whereas the poloidal one changes sign inside the rope.

We start with the position of two ropes just touching each other and set the centre positions to be $\boldsymbol{x}_{c}=(-r_{j},0)$ and $\boldsymbol{x}_{c}=(r_{j},0)$ . The evolution is very slow, given the fact that at the contact the reconnecting field vanishes. To speed things up, we ‘push’ the ropes towards each other by imposing a drift velocity. That is, we initialize the electric field

where $\boldsymbol{v}_{\text{kick}}=(\pm v_{\text{kick}},0,0)$ inside the ropes and here we set $v_{\text{kick}}=0.1c$ .

The numerical set-up is as follows. We have adopted the force-free algorithm of Komissarov, Barkov & Lyutikov (Reference Komissarov, Barkov and Lyutikov2007) to create a physics module in the publicly available code MPI-AMRVACFootnote ¹⁰ (Keppens et al. Reference Keppens, Meliani, van Marle, Delmont, Vlasis and van der Holst2012; Porth et al. Reference Porth, Xia, Hendrix, Moschou and Keppens2014). We simulate a 2-D Cartesian domain with $x\in [-6,6]$ and $y\in [-3,3]$ at a base resolution of $128\times 64$ cells. In the following, the scales are given in units of $r_{j}$ . During the evolution, we ensure that the Full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the current density in the current sheet is resolved by at least 16 cells via local adaptive mesh refinement of up to eight levels, each increasing the resolution by a factor of two. Boundary conditions are set to ‘periodic’.

The results are illustrated in figure 2, which shows the distribution of $B_{z}$ and $\unicode[STIX]{x1D712}\equiv 1-E^{2}/B^{2}$ at $t=0,2,5,6,9$ . Interestingly, around the time $t\approx 5$ , the cores (with $B_{z}$ of the same sign) of the flux tubes begin to merge. This leads to zero guide field in the current sheet and increased reconnection rate. The sudden increase in reconnection rate leads to a strong wave being emitted from the current sheet which is also seen in the decrease to $\unicode[STIX]{x1D712}\approx 0.7$ in the outer part of the flux tubes, i.e. in figure 33(g,h).

Figure 33.

Merging Lundquist flux tubes with initial kick velocity $v_{\text{kick}}=0.1c$ and $\unicode[STIX]{x1D702}_{\Vert }=1/1000$ . From top to bottom, we show snapshots at $t=[0,2,5,6,9]$ where the coordinates are given in units of initial flux-tube radius $r_{j}$ and time is measured in units of $c/r_{j}$ . (a,c,e,g,i) Shows the magnitude of the out-of-plane component $B_{z}$ . (b,d,f,h,j) Shows plots of $\unicode[STIX]{x1D712}=1-E^{2}/B^{2}$ indicating that regions with $E\sim B$ emerge in the outflow region of the current sheet. Starting from the small kick velocity, the merger rate starts with initial small kick velocity and speeds up until $t\sim 5$ . Exemplary field lines are traced and shown as black lines in (b,d,f,h,j).

The influence of the guide field is investigated in figure 34. In the left column of panels, we show cuts of $B^{z}$ along the $y=0$ plane. As the in-plane magnetic flux reconnects in the current sheet, the out-of-plane component remains and accumulates, leading to a steep profile with magnetic pressure that opposes the inward motion of reconnecting field lines. At $t=5.2$ , the guide field changes sign and the reconnection rate spikes rapidly at a value of $v_{r}\approx 0.6$ . This is clearly seen in the right column of panels of figure 34. Thereafter, a guide field of the opposite sign builds up and the reconnection rate slows down again. The position of the flux-tube core as quantified by the peak of $B^{z}$ evolves for $t<r_{j}/c$ according to the prescribed velocity kick (4.2) but then settles for a slower evolution governed by the resistive time scale.

Figure 34.

Merging Lundquist flux tubes. Left: cuts along the $y=0$ plane, showing the profile of the guide field for various times. Coordinates are given in terms of $r_{j}$ and times in units of $r_{j}/c$ . At $t\simeq 5.2$ , the guide field in the current sheet at $x=0$ changes sign which results in a sharp rise in the reconnection rate and accelerated merger of the cores. Right: domain-averaged electric field $\langle E^{2}\rangle$ (top) and other quantities of interest (bottom): reconnection rate, measured as drift velocity through $x=\pm 0.1$ (red), $x$ -coordinate of the core quantified as peak in $B^{z}$ (black) and guide field at the origin $B^{z}(0,0)$ (blue). When the guide field changes sign, the reconnection rate spikes at $v_{r}\simeq 0.6c$ . This equivalent PIC result is discussed in figure 50.

4.2.1 Description of set-up

For the following analysis, we consider a modified version of Lundquist’s force-free cylinders discussed in the previous § 4.1.1. The toroidal field is the same as given by (4.1), but the vertical field reads

within a flux tube and is set to $B_{z}(r_{j})$ in the external medium. As a result, the sign change of the guide field is avoided and only positive values of $B_{z}$ are present. The additional constant $C$ sets the minimum (positive) vertical magnetic field component. In the following, we always set $C=0.01$ .

Figure 35.

Merger of 2-D modified Lundquist flux tubes with initial kick velocity $v_{\text{kick}}=0.03c$ and $\unicode[STIX]{x1D702}_{\Vert }=1000$ . From top to bottom, we show snapshots at $t=[6,9,10,11,1214]$ where the coordinates are given in units of initial flux-tube radius $r_{j}$ and time is measured in units of $c/r_{j}$ . (a,c,e,g,i,k) Shows magnitude of out-of-plane component $B_{z}$ . (b,d,f,h,j,l) Shows plots of $\unicode[STIX]{x1D712}=1-E^{2}/B^{2}$ indicating that regions with $E\sim B$ emerge in the outflow region of the current sheet. Starting from the small kick velocity, the merger rate starts with initial small kick velocity and speeds up until $t\sim 9$ . Exemplary field lines are traced and shown as black lines in (b,d,f,h,j,l).

In this section, we will investigate dependence of reconnection rate and electric field magnitude on the kick velocity and magnetic Reynolds number.

Figure 36.

Merger of 2-D modified Lundquist flux tubes showing $B_{z}$ with varying kick velocity: $v_{\text{kick}}=0.01c$ at $t=12$ (a), $v_{\text{kick}}=0.03c$ at $t=9$ (b), $v_{\text{kick}}=0.1c$ at $t=6$ (c) and $v_{\text{kick}}=0.3c$ at $t=5$ (d). The snapshot times are chosen to reflect the maximum reconnection rate $v_{r}$ , measured as inflow velocity at $x=\pm 0.05$ . See text for details.

4.2.2 Overall evolution

As the current vanishes on the surface of the flux tubes, the initial Lorentz force also vanishes and the flux tubes approach each other on the time scale given by the kick velocity. Then a current sheet is formed at the intersection which reconnects in-plane magnetic flux resulting in an engulfing field. This evolution is illustrated in figure 35 for an exemplary run with $(v_{\text{kick}},\unicode[STIX]{x1D702}_{\Vert })=(0.03c,10^{-3})$ , showing out-of-plane magnetic field strength $B_{z}$ and the previously introduced parameter $\unicode[STIX]{x1D712}=1-E^{2}/B^{2}$ . It can be seen that in the outflow region of the current sheet, $\unicode[STIX]{x1D712}$ assumes values as small as $\unicode[STIX]{x1D712}_{\text{min}}=0.09$ but the distributed region of $\unicode[STIX]{x1D712}\approx 0.7$ that is observed for the unmodified Lundquist tubes is absent. After the peak reconnection rate which for the shown parameters is reached at $t\simeq 9$ , the system undergoes oscillations between prolate and oblate shape during which the current sheet shrinks. The oscillation frequency corresponds to a light-crossing time across the structure.

4.2.3 Dependence on kick velocity

We now vary the magnitude of the initial perturbation in the interval $v_{\text{kick}}\in [0.03c,0.3c]$ . Figure 36 gives an overview of the morphology when the peak reconnection rate is reached. The reconnection rate is measured as inflowing drift velocity at $x=\pm 0.05$ and is averaged over a vertical extent of $\unicode[STIX]{x0394}y=0.1$ . For the lower three kick velocities, we obtain a very similar morphology when the peak reconnection rate is reached. With $v_{\text{kick}}=0.3c$ , the flux tubes rebound, resulting in emission of waves in the ambient medium. As the flux tubes dynamically react to the large perturbation, it is not possible to force a higher reconnection rate by smashing them together with high velocity, they simply bounce off due to the magnetic tension in each flux tube. However, high velocity perturbations of $v_{\text{kick}}=0.1c$ and $v_{\text{kick}}=0.3c$ lead to the formation of plasmoids which are absent in the cases with small perturbation and this in turn can impact on the reconnection rate.

A more quantitative view is shown in figure 37 illustrating the evolution of the mean electric energy in the domain $\langle E^{2}\rangle (t)$ and reconnection rate as previously defined. One can see that all simulations reach a comparable electric field strength in the domain, independent of the initial perturbation. The electric field grows exponentially with comparable growth rate and also the saturation values are only weakly dependent on the initial perturbation. Indeed, comparing highest and lowest kick velocities, we find that $\langle E^{2}\rangle _{\text{max}}$ is within a factor of two for a range of $30$ in the velocity perturbation.

Figure 37.

Merger of 2-D modified Lundquist flux tubes showing the evolution of domain-averaged electric field $\langle E^{2}\rangle$ (a) and reconnection rate $v_{r}$ (b). We vary the initial driving velocity from $v=0.01c$ to $v_{}=0.3c$ . See text for discussion.

In the evolution of $\langle E^{2}\rangle (t)$ , one can also read off the oscillation period of $P\approx 1r_{j}/c$ , most pronounced in the strongly perturbed case. The span of peak reconnection rates is similar to the mean electric field strength with a range from $v_{r}=0.2$ down to $v_{r}=0.11$ . The reconnection rate saturates at ${\sim}0.1c$ for vanishing initial perturbation. When plasmoids are triggered, as for the case $v_{\text{kick}}=0.1$ and $v_{\text{kick}}=0.3$ , the run of $v_{r}$ shows additional substructure leading to secondary peaks as seen e.g. in the green curve on the lower panel.

4.2.4 Scaling with magnetic Reynolds number

We next investigate the scaling of reconnection rate with magnetic Reynolds number while keeping a fixed kick velocity of $0.1c$ . As astrophysical Reynolds numbers are typically much larger than what can be achieved numerically, this is an important check for the applicability of the results. For the force-free case, we simply define the Lundquist number

and check the scaling via the resistivity parameter $\unicode[STIX]{x1D702}_{\Vert }$ .

Figure 38.

Merger of 2-D modified Lundquist flux tubes for different resistivities $\unicode[STIX]{x1D702}_{\Vert }$ with initial kick velocity of $0.1c$ . Mean squared electric field in the domain (top) and reconnection speed in units of $c$ (bottom). Left: Force-free dynamics. The initial evolution depends on the resistivity but comparable values for the reconnection rate of $v_{r}\approx 0.15c$ are obtained for all considered Reynolds numbers. Note that in the case $\unicode[STIX]{x1D702}_{\Vert }=1/4000$ plasmoids appear at $t\simeq 8$ which are not observed in the other runs. Right: Corresponding resistive MHD evolution with $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}\in [1.7,10]$ and doubled (dashed) and quadrupled (dotted) magnetization. One can see that the force-free result is approached both in the evolution of $\langle E^{2}\rangle$ and $v_{r}$ .

Figure 38 (left panel), shows the run of the domain-averaged electric field and the reconnection rate as in figure 37. In general, the initial evolution progresses faster when larger resistivities are considered, suggesting a scaling with the resistive time. However, once a significant amount of magnetic flux has reconnected, the electric energy in the domain peaks at values within a factor of $1.5$ for a significant range of Reynolds numbers $\unicode[STIX]{x1D702}_{\Vert }\in [1/100,1/4000]$ . Very good agreement is found for the peak reconnection rate of $v_{r}\simeq 0.15c$ . The $\unicode[STIX]{x1D702}_{\Vert }=1/4000$ run developed plasmoids at $t\simeq 8$ which were not observed in the other runs.

We have also conducted a range of experiments in resistive relativistic magnetohydrodynamics (RMHD). The set-up is as the force-free configuration described above, however we now choose constant values for density and pressure such that the magnetization in the flux rope has the range $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}\in [1.7,10]$ and the Alfvén velocity ranges in $v_{A}\in [0.8,0.95]$ . The adiabatic index was chosen as $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}=4/3$ . Figure 38 (right panel) shows the resulting evolution of electric field and reconnection rate for a variety of resistivity parameter $\unicode[STIX]{x1D702}\in [1/250,1/4000]$ . Note that the green curves in the left and right panel correspond to the same resistivity parameter of $\unicode[STIX]{x1D702}_{\Vert },\unicode[STIX]{x1D702}=1/1000$ and cyan (left) and red (right) curves both correspond to $\unicode[STIX]{x1D702}_{\Vert },\unicode[STIX]{x1D702}=1/4000$ . The initial evolution up to the wave reflection feature at $t=2$ is very similar in both realizations. Afterwards the evolution differs: while the reconnection rate in the force-free run with $\unicode[STIX]{x1D702}_{\Vert }=1/4000$ increases to reach a peak of $v_{r}\simeq 0.15c$ at $t\simeq 9$ , $v_{r}$ remains approximately constant in the corresponding RMHD run. In contrast to the force-free scenario, the RMHD runs did not feature any plasmoids at the Reynolds numbers considered here. Better agreement is found for $\unicode[STIX]{x1D702}_{\Vert },\unicode[STIX]{x1D702}=1/1000$ (green curves in both panels). Here, the force-free reconnection rate reaches its peak value of $v_{r}\simeq 0.14$ at $t\simeq 6$ and the RMHD peaks at $t\simeq 7$ with $v_{r}\simeq 0.07c$ . Increasing the magnetization improves the match between both cases: In the green dashed (dotted) curve, we have doubled (quadrupled) the magnetization by lowering plasma density and pressure in the SRMHD runs at $\unicode[STIX]{x1D702}=1/1000$ . One can see that the evolution speeds up and higher reconnection rates are achieved: For the highest magnetization run, we reach the peak reconnection rate of $\simeq 0.1c$ and the peak is reached already at $t\simeq 6.2$ very similar to the corresponding force-free run which peaked at $t\simeq 6$ with $v_{r}\simeq 0.13c$ . This indicates that the RMHD model indeed approaches the force-free limit for increasing magnetization.

4.3.1 Description of set-up

We now adopt a set-up where the current does no return volumetrically within the flux tube, but returns as a current sheet on the surface. The solution is based on the ‘core-envelope’ solution of Komissarov (Reference Komissarov1999), with the gas pressure replaced by the pressure of the poloidal field. Specifically, the profiles read

where

$r_{j}$ is the outer radius of the rope and $r_{m}$ is the radius of its core. In the simulations, $r_{m}=0.5$ , $B_{m}=1$ , $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FC}=0.2$ and the coordinates are scaled to $r_{j}=1$ . As in the previous cases, two identical current tubes are centred at $(x,y)=(-1,0)$ and $(x,y)=(1,0)$ . They are at rest and barely touch each other at $(x,y)=(0,0)$ . In this scenario, since the current closes discontinuously at the surface of the flux tubes, the Lorentz force acting on the outer field lines is non-vanishing. Thus we can dispense with the initial perturbation and always set $v_{\text{kick}}=0$ .

4.3.2 Overall evolution

The overall evolution is characterized as follows: Immediately, a current sheet forms at the point (0, 0) and two Y-points get expelled in vertical direction with initial speed of $c$ . The expansion of the Y-points is thereafter slowed down by the accumulating pressure of $B^{z}$ in the ambient medium. Snapshots of $B^{z}$ for the case $\unicode[STIX]{x1D702}_{\Vert }=1/500$ are shown in figure 39. The stage of most rapid evolution of the cores is at $t\simeq 4$ . At this time, the morphology is comparable to the modified Lundquist ropes, i.e. figure 36.

We quantify the evolution of Y-point $(0,y_{yp})$ via the peak in $E^{x}$ along the $x=0$ line and the core location $(x_{c},0)$ as peak of $B^{z}$ along the $y=0$ line. The data are shown in figure 40(a). One can see the Y-point slowing down from its initial very fast motion. Gradually, the cores accelerate their approach, reaching a maximal velocity at $t\simeq 4$ . The evolution stalls as the guide field at $(0,0)$ reaches its maximum and magnetic pressure in the current sheet balances the tension of the encompassing field.

Figure 39.

Merger of 2-D core-envelope flux tubes with $\unicode[STIX]{x1D702}_{\Vert }=500$ . We show snapshots showing $B^{z}$ at $t=[1,2,3,4,5]$ as indicated in (a–f), where the coordinates are given in units of initial flux-tube radius $r_{j}$ and time is measured in units of $c/r_{j}$ . This figure is to be compared to the PIC results as shown in figure 52.

Figure 40.

Merger of 2-D core-envelope flux tubes with $\unicode[STIX]{x1D702}_{\Vert }=500$ . (a) Position of the upper Y-Point (solid red) quantified as peak of $E^{x}$ on the $x=0$ line and right core position (blue dashed) obtained from the peak of $B^{z}$ on the $x=0$ line. (b) Reconnection rate, measured as drift velocity through $x=\pm 0.1$ (solid red) and guide field at the origin $B^{z}(0,0)$ (blue dashed). This figure can be compared to the PIC results shown in figure 53.

4.3.3 Scaling with magnetic Reynolds number

As for the modified Lundquist ropes, § 4.2.4, we investigate the dependence of the dynamics with magnetic Reynolds number by varying the resistivity parameter. An overview of relevant quantities is given in figure 41 for the range $\unicode[STIX]{x1D702}_{\Vert }\in [1/500,1/8000]$ . After the onset time of ${\approx}r_{j}/c$ , all runs enter into a phase where the electric energy grows according to $\propto \exp (tc/r_{j})$ . As expected, the electric energy decreases when the conductivity is increased. Between $t\simeq 4$ and $t\simeq 5$ , the growth of the electric energy saturates and the evolution slows down. In general, we observe two regimes: Up to $\unicode[STIX]{x1D702}_{\Vert }=1/4000$ , the reconnection rate decreases with increasing conductivity, as would be expected in a Sweet–Parker scaling. In this regime, also the motion of the cores slows down when $\unicode[STIX]{x1D702}_{\Vert }$ is decreased. Whereas the most rapid motion for $\unicode[STIX]{x1D702}_{\Vert }=1/500$ was found at $t\simeq 4$ , for $\unicode[STIX]{x1D702}_{\Vert }=1/4000$ it is delayed to $t\simeq 5$ (cf. figure 41 c).

The case with the highest conductivity, $\unicode[STIX]{x1D702}_{\Vert }=1/8000$ breaks the trend of the low conductivity cases. Here, the reconnection rate increases continuously up to $t\simeq 4.5$ at which point it rapidly flares to a large value of $v_{r}\simeq 0.25c$ where it remains for somewhat less than $r_{j}/c$ . Also the slowing of the core motion is halted at $\unicode[STIX]{x1D702}_{\Vert }=1/8000$ : Up to $t\simeq 5$ , the core position lines up well with the case $\unicode[STIX]{x1D702}_{\Vert }=1/4000$ . Just after the flare, the flux-tube merger is accelerated as evidenced by the rapid decline of $x_{c}$ .

Figure 41.

Merger of 2-D core-envelope flux tubes for different resistivities $\unicode[STIX]{x1D702}_{\Vert }\in [1/500,1/8000]$ . (a) Domain-averaged electric field strength $\langle E^{2}\rangle$ . After one light-crossing time we observe a growth according to $\propto \exp (tc/r_{j})$ indicated as black dashed line. (b) Reconnection rate, measured as drift velocity through $x=\pm 0.1$ . The dynamical evolution for $\unicode[STIX]{x1D702}_{\Vert }=1/8000$ is very different from the cases $\unicode[STIX]{x1D702}_{\Vert }=1/1000,1/2000,1/4000$ . In those cases, one large plasmoid would form and remain stationary in the current sheet until very late times ( $t>6$ ). In the lowest resistivity case however, many small plasmoids are created which expel flux continuously to both sides. Thus the magnetic tension surrounding the structure grows more rapidly, leading to the explosive increase of reconnection at $t\simeq 4.5$ . (c) Core position for the three selected cases $\unicode[STIX]{x1D702}_{\Vert }=1/500,1/4000,1/8000$ . In the regime $\unicode[STIX]{x1D702}_{\Vert }\in [1/500,1/4000]$ , the merging of the cores slows down as electric conductivity increases. For $\unicode[STIX]{x1D702}_{\Vert }=1/8000$ however, this trend is halted and reversed as the motion of the cores actually speeds up after the peak in reconnection rate at $t\simeq 5$ . This figure can be compared to the PIC results shown in figure 57.

It is interesting to ask why the dynamics changed so dramatically for the case $\unicode[STIX]{x1D702}_{\Vert }=1/8000$ . In figure 42, we show snapshots of $\unicode[STIX]{x1D712}=1-E^{2}/B^{2}$ at the time $t=5$ for the two highest conductivity cases. At this point, in the lower conductivity case, a single large central plasmoid has formed that remains in the current sheet for the entire evolution. This qualitative picture also holds for the cases $\unicode[STIX]{x1D702}_{\Vert }=1/1000,1/2000$ . Flux that accumulates in the central plasmoid does not get expelled from the current sheet and so does not add to the magnetic tension which pushes the ropes together. Furthermore, the single island opposes the merger via its magnetic pressure of the accumulated $B^{z}$ . For the case $\unicode[STIX]{x1D702}_{\Vert }=1/8000$ , the large-scale plasmoid does not form, instead smaller plasmoids are expelled symmetrically in both directions. The expelled flux continues to contribute to the large scale stresses and the merger of the islands is accelerated further which is reflected also in the continued exponential rise of the electric energy shown in figure 41. As in the case of the Lundquist and modified Lundquist flux tubes and as required for rapid particle acceleration, macroscopic regions of $E>B$ are found also in this configuration in the outflow regions of the current sheet, illustrated in figure 42.

Figure 42.

Merger of 2-D core-envelope flux tubes. Comparison of $\unicode[STIX]{x1D712}=1-E^{2}/B^{2}$ in the central region for the two highest conductivity cases at the time of the reconnection flare at $t=5$ : $\unicode[STIX]{x1D702}_{\Vert }=1/4000$ (a) and $\unicode[STIX]{x1D702}_{\Vert }=1/8000$ (b). One can clearly see the different qualitative behaviour: in the former case, a single large plasmoid grows in the centre of the current sheet, in the latter case, instead small-scale plasmoids are expelled in both directions. At this time, there are also clear differences in the position of the Y-point: in the high conductivity case, the Y-point is notably further out as the evolution has progressed faster. As the evolution progresses, a large connected charge-starved area develops as seen in (c) for $\unicode[STIX]{x1D702}_{\Vert }=1/8000$ at $t=5.5r_{j}/c$ .

In conclusion, our force-free experiments of coalescing flux tubes show that large-scale stresses can lead to high reconnection rates in the range of $0.1c{-}0.3c$ , independent of the magnetic Reynolds number. The dynamics is highly nonlinear and depends on the details of the reconnection in the current sheet: when a single large plasmoid is formed in the current sheet, rapid instability can be avoided. This was the case in the three intermediate resistivity cases for the core-envelope configuration considered here. Also the original Lundquist tubes showed a rapid reconnection flare of $v_{r}\simeq 0.6c$ . The reason is the sign change of the $B^{z}$ component, leading to vanishing guide field and a missing restoring force in the current sheet. As guide field with opposite polarity builds up in the current sheet thereafter, the fast reconnection is quickly stalled.

4.5.1 Dependence on the flow conditions

We now investigate the dependence of our results on the magnetization $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ and the ratio $\,r_{j}/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ , where $r_{L,\text{hot}}=\sqrt{\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}}\,c/\unicode[STIX]{x1D714}_{p}$ . In figure 47, we present the 2-D pattern of the out-of-plane field $B_{z}$ (in units of $B_{0,in}$ ) during the most violent phase of rope merger (i.e. when the electric energy peaks, as indicated by the vertical dotted lines in figure 48) from a suite of PIC simulations in a rectangular domain of size $5\,r_{j}\times 3\,r_{j}$ . In the left column, we fix $kT/mc^{2}=10^{-4}$ and $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}=11$ and we vary the ratio $\,r_{j}/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ , from 31 to 245 (from top to bottom). In the right column, we fix $kT/mc^{2}=10^{-4}$ and  $\,r_{j}/r_{L,\text{hot}}=61$ and we vary the magnetization $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ , from 3 to 170 (from top to bottom). The evolution is driven with a velocity $v_{\text{push}}/c=0.1$ in all the cases.

The 2-D pattern of $B_{z}$ presented in figure 47 shows that the merger proceeds in a similar way in all the runs. The only difference is that larger $\,r_{j}/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ lead to thinner current sheets, when fixing $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ (figure 47 a,c,e,g). Roughly, the thickness of the current sheet is set by the Larmor radius $r_{L,\text{hot}}$ of the high-energy particles heated/accelerated by reconnection. In (b,d,f,h), with $\,r_{j}/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ fixed, the thickness of the current sheet is then a fixed fraction of the box size. In contrast, in (a,c,e,g), the ratio of current sheet thickness to box size will scale as $r_{L,\text{hot}}/\,r_{j}$ , as indeed it is observed. A long thin current sheet is expected to fragment into a chain of plasmoids/magnetic islands (e.g. Uzdensky et al. Reference Uzdensky, Loureiro and Schekochihin2010; Werner et al. Reference Werner, Uzdensky, Cerutti, Nalewajko and Begelman2016), when the length-to-thickness ratio is much larger than unity. It follows that all the cases in (b,d,f,h) will display a similar tendency for fragmentation (and in particular, they do not appreciably fragment), whereas the likelihood of fragmentation is expected to increase from top to bottom in (a,c,e,g). In fact, for the case with $\,r_{j}/r_{L,\text{hot}}=245$ (g), a number of small-scale plasmoids appear in the current sheets (e.g. see the plasmoid at $x\sim 0$ and $y\sim -0.1\,r_{j}$ in g). We find that as long as $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}\gg 1$ , the secondary tearing mode discussed by Uzdensky et al. (Reference Uzdensky, Loureiro and Schekochihin2010) – that leads to current sheet fragmentation – appears at $\,r_{j}/r_{L,\text{hot}}\gtrsim 100$ , in the case of Lundquist ropes.Footnote ¹⁵

In figure 48 we present the temporal evolution of the runs whose 2-D structure is shown in figure 47. In (a,c,e), we fix $kT/mc^{2}=10^{-4}$ and $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}=11$ and we vary the ratio $\,r_{j}/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ , from 31 to 245 (from blue to red, as indicated in the legend of c,d). In (b,d,f), we fix $kT/mc^{2}=10^{-4}$ and $\,r_{j}/r_{L,\text{hot}}=61$ and we vary the magnetization $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ , from 3 to 170 (from blue to red, as indicated in the legend of c,d). (a,b) Show that the evolution of the electric energy (in units of the total initial energy) is similar for all the values of $\,r_{j}/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ and $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ we explore. In particular, the electric energy grows approximately as $\propto \exp (ct/\,r_{j})$ in all the cases (compare with the dashed black lines), and it peaks at ${\sim}5\,\%$ of the total initial energy. The only marginal exception is the trans-relativistic case $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}=3$ and $\,r_{j}/r_{L,\text{hot}}=61$ (blue line in b), whose peak value is slightly smaller, due to the lower Alfvén speed. The onset time of the instability is also nearly independent of $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ (b), although the low-magnetization cases $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}=3$ and 11 (blue and green lines) seem to be growing slightly later. As regard to the dependence of the onset time on $\,r_{j}/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ at fixed $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ , in figure 48(a) shows that larger values of $\,r_{j}/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ tend to grow later, but the variation is only moderate (with the exception of the case with the smallest $\,r_{j}/r_{L,\text{hot}}=31$ , blue line in (a), that grows quite early).

The peak reconnection rate in all the cases we have explored is around $v_{\text{rec}}/c\sim 0.2{-}0.3$ (figure 48 c,d). It marginally decreases with increasing $\,r_{j}/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ (but we have verified that it saturates at $v_{\text{rec}}/c\sim 0.25$ in the limit $\,r_{j}/r_{L,\text{hot}}\gg 1$ , see figure 48 c), and it moderately increases with $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ (especially as we transition from the non-relativistic regime to the relativistic regime, but it saturates at $v_{\text{rec}}/c\sim 0.3$ in the limit $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}\gg 1$ , see figure 48 d). We had found similar values and trends for the peak reconnection rate in the case of ABC collapse, see § 2.4.

In the evolution of the maximum particle Lorentz factor $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{\text{max}}$ (figure 48 e,f), one can distinguish two phases. At early times ( $ct/\,r_{j}\sim 2.5$ ), the increase in $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{\text{max}}$ is moderate, when reconnection is triggered in the central region by the initial velocity push. At later times ( $ct/\,r_{j}\sim 6$ ), as the two magnetic ropes merge on a dynamical time scale, the maximum particle Lorentz factor grows explosively. Following the same argument detailed in § 2.4, we estimate that the high-energy cutoff of the particle spectrum at the end of the merger event (which lasts for a few $\,r_{j}/c$ ) should scale as $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{\text{max}}/\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{th}\propto v_{\text{rec}}^{2}\sqrt{\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}}\,r_{j}\propto v_{\text{rec}}^{2}\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}(\,r_{j}/r_{L,\text{hot}})$ . If the reconnection rate does not significantly depend on $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ , this implies that $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{\text{max}}\propto \,r_{j}$ at fixed $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ . The trend for a steady increase of $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{\text{max}}$ with $\,r_{j}$ at fixed $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ is confirmed in figure 48(e), both at the final time and at the peak time of the electric energy (which is slightly different among the four different cases, see the vertical dotted coloured lines).Footnote ¹⁶ Similarly, if the reconnection rate does not significantly depend on $\,r_{j}/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ , this implies that $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{\text{max}}\propto \unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ at fixed $\,r_{j}/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ . This linear dependence of $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{\text{max}}$ on $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ is confirmed in figure 48(f).

The dependence of the particle spectrum on $\,r_{j}/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ and $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ is illustrated in figure 49 (a and b, respectively), where we present the particle energy distribution at the time when the electric energy peaks (as indicated by the coloured vertical dotted lines in figure 48). In the main panels we plot $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}\,\text{d}N/\text{d}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}$ , to emphasize the particle content, whereas the insets show $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}^{2}\,\text{d}N/\text{d}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}$ , to highlight the energy census. The particle spectrum shows a pronounced non-thermal component in all the cases, regardless of whether the secondary plasmoid instability is triggered or not in the current sheets (the results presented in figure 49 correspond to the cases displayed in figure 47). This suggests that in our set-up any acceleration mechanism that relies on plasmoid mergers is not very important, but rather that the dominant source of energy is direct acceleration by the reconnection electric field, in analogy to what we had demonstrated for the solitary X-point collapse and the ABC instability.

Figure 49.

Particle spectrum at the time when the electric energy peaks, for a suite of PIC simulations of Lundquist ropes (same runs as in figures 47 and 48). In all the cases, the evolution is driven with a velocity $v_{\text{push}}/c=0.1$ . In (a) we fix $kT/mc^{2}=10^{-4}$ and $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}=11$ and we vary the ratio $\,r_{j}/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ from 31 to 245 (from blue to red, as indicated by the legend). In (b) we fix $kT/mc^{2}=10^{-4}$ and $\,r_{j}/r_{L,\text{hot}}=61$ and we vary the magnetization $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ from 3 to 170 (from blue to red, as indicated by the legend). The main plot shows $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}\,\text{d}N/\text{d}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}$ to emphasize the particle content, whereas the inset presents $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}^{2}\,\text{d}N/\text{d}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}$ to highlight the energy census. The dotted black line is a power law $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}\,\text{d}N/\text{d}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}\propto \unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}^{-1}$ , corresponding to equal energy content per decade (which would result in a flat distribution in the insets). The spectral hardness is not a sensitive function of the ratio $\,r_{j}/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ , but it is strongly dependent on $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ , with higher magnetizations giving harder spectra, up to the saturation slope of $-1$ .

At the time when the electric energy peaks, most of the particles are still in the thermal component (at $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}\sim 1$ ), i.e. bulk heating is negligible. Yet, a dramatic event of particle acceleration is taking place, with a few lucky particles accelerated much beyond the mean energy per particle ${\sim}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{th}\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}/2$ (for comparison, we point out that $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{th}\sim 1$ and $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}=11$ for the cases in the left panel). At fixed $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}=11$ (left panel), we see that the high-energy spectral cutoff scales as $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{\text{max}}\propto \,r_{j}$ ( $\,r_{j}$ changes by a factor of two in between each pair of curves).Footnote ¹⁷ On the other hand, at fixed $\,r_{j}/r_{L,\text{hot}}=61$ (right panel), we find that $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{\text{max}}\propto \unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ ( $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ changes by a factor of four in between each pair of curves).

The spectral hardness is primarily controlled by the average in-plane magnetization $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ . Figure 49(b) shows that at fixed $\,r_{j}/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ the spectrum becomes systematically harder with increasing $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ , approaching the asymptotic shape $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}\,\text{d}N/\text{d}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}\propto \text{const.}$ found for plane-parallel steady-state reconnection in the limit of high magnetizations (Sironi & Spitkovsky Reference Sironi and Spitkovsky2014; Guo et al. Reference Guo, Liu, Daughton and Li2015; Werner et al. Reference Werner, Uzdensky, Cerutti, Nalewajko and Begelman2016). At large $\,r_{j}/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ , the hard spectrum of the high- $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ cases will necessarily run into constraints of energy conservation (see (2.3)), unless the pressure feedback of the accelerated particles onto the flow structure ultimately leads to a spectral softening (in analogy to the case of cosmic ray modified shocks, see Amato & Blasi Reference Amato and Blasi2006). This argument seems to be supported by figure 49(a). At fixed $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}$ , (a) shows that the spectral slope is nearly insensitive to $\,r_{j}/r_{L,\text{hot}}$ , but larger systems seem to lead to steeper slopes, which possibly reconciles the increase in $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{\text{max}}$ with the argument of energy conservation illustrated in (2.3).

Figure 50.

Temporal evolution of the electric energy (a) (in units of the total initial energy), of the reconnection rate (b) (defined as the mean inflow velocity in a square of side $\,r_{j}/2$ centred at $x=y=0$ ) and of the maximum particle Lorentz factor (c) ( $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{\text{max}}$ is defined in (2.3), and it is normalized to the thermal Lorentz factor $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}_{th}\simeq 1+(\hat{\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}}-1)^{-1}kT/mc^{2}$ ), for a suite of four PIC simulations of Lundquist ropes with fixed $kT/mc^{2}=10^{-4}$ , $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}=43$ and $\,r_{j}/r_{L,\text{hot}}=61$ , but different magnitudes of the initial velocity: $v_{\text{push}}/c=3\times 10^{-1}$ (blue), $v_{\text{push}}/c=10^{-1}$ (green), $v_{\text{push}}/c=3\times 10^{-2}$ (yellow) and $v_{\text{push}}/c=10^{-2}$ (red). The dashed black line in (a) shows that the electric energy grows exponentially as $\propto \text{exp}(ct/\,r_{j})$ . The vertical dotted lines mark the time when the electric energy peaks (colours correspond to the four values of $v_{\text{push}}/c$ , as described above).

Figure 51.

Particle spectrum at the time when the electric energy peaks, for a suite of four PIC simulations of Lundquist ropes with fixed $kT/mc^{2}=10^{-4}$ , $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70E}_{in}=43$ and $\,r_{j}/r_{L,\text{hot}}=61$ , but different magnitudes of the initial velocity (same runs as in figure 50): $v_{\text{push}}/c=3\times 10^{-1}$ (blue), $v_{\text{push}}/c=10^{-1}$ (green), $v_{\text{push}}/c=3\times 10^{-2}$ (yellow) and $v_{\text{push}}/c=10^{-2}$ (red). The main plot shows $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}\,\text{d}N/\,\text{d}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}$ to emphasize the particle content, whereas the inset presents $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}^{2}\,\text{d}N/\,\text{d}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}$ to highlight the energy census. The dotted black line is a power law $\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}\,\text{d}N/\,\text{d}\unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}\propto \unicode[STIX]{x1D6FE}^{-1}$ , corresponding to equal energy content per decade (which would result in a flat distribution in the inset). The particle spectrum is remarkably independent from the initial $v_{\text{push}}$ .