Musical concepts, movement and creativity in early childhood education

Music in kindergarten curricula lends itself to children having opportunities to learn musical concepts, and engage in expressive movement and creativity. According to Barrett (Reference BARRETT and Wright2012), there are five key components of a music program in early childhood settings, with each being ‘interconnected and mutually supportive: composing and improvising with instruments and voice; notating music experiences; singing invented and canonic song; playing instruments, and listening to music’ (p. 71). Children like to sing as they play, with singing ‘often accompanied by movement, and instrumental sound-making’ (Barrett & Tafuri, Reference BARRETT, TAFURI, Welch and McPherson2012, p. 308). Play offers opportunities for the integration of language through singing, movement, and sound making, while singing is a way of communicating thoughts and feelings (Mayesky, Reference MAYESKY2012). Because songs are made up of lyrics and melodic sound, ‘they are an integration of text and melody . . . Singing a song is, therefore, an experience not just in music, but in language as well’ (Chen–Hafteck & Mang, Reference CHEN–HAFTECK, MANG, Welch and McPherson2012, p. 270). Therefore, when children sing, there are effects on language such as promoting sensitivity to prosodic structures (Wong et al., Reference WONG, SLOE, RUSSO, DEES and KRAUS2007), and increasing brain responses to violations in musical pitch (Magne, Schon & Besson, Reference MAGNE, SCHON and BESSON2006) and syntactic structure (Jentschke, Koelsch & Friederici, Reference JENTSCHKE, KOELSCH and FRIEDERICI2005).

Early research indicated that children aged 2–8 years liked spontaneous music making when they participated in unstructured play settings (Moorhead & Pond, Reference MOORHEAD and POND1978). More recently, Barrett and Tafuri (Reference BARRETT, TAFURI, Welch and McPherson2012) have elaborated on children's spontaneity, including their ‘capacity and willingness to experiment (vocally and instrumentally), their readiness to engage in invention individually and in conjunction with others, the strong relationship between words and rhythm in early chant . . . and the embodied nature of much of children's early music making’ (p. 300). Music educators such as Carl Orff and students, and Zoltan Kodaly, have supported the idea that music and linguistic abilities develop in tandem (Chen–Hefteck & Mang, Reference CHEN–HAFTECK, MANG, Welch and McPherson2012). For instance, the Orff approach for children starts with ‘speech rhythm, traditional rhymes, and songs, which are then integrated with musical expression, movement, and creativity’ (p. 274). Music and language learning experiences can become an integrated whole as they do in the Kodaly approach, with each enhancing the other (Chen–Hefteck & Mang, Reference CHEN–HAFTECK, MANG, Welch and McPherson2012).

Musical experiences such as chanting, singing and dancing are common occurrences in young children's play. Children use the sound of their own voices to sing and chant, which is a way to ‘experiment with sound and rhythm’ (Mayesky, Reference MAYESKY2012, p. 397). They also make up original chants and songs, and move rhythmically to beat (Mayesky, Reference MAYESKY2009). Hearing soothing sounds can help children become calm and relaxed, while more robust sounds encourage children to move their bodies in more powerful ways. When children are given chances to listen to and experience instruments and their tonal qualities, they can be encouraged to develop a concept of timbre. They can also learn to distinguish sounds from two different percussion instruments (e.g., tambourine, claves).

Movement is a fundamental aspect of everyday life for children and including movement in music programs in kindergarten settings is an important part of the daily routine. Movement is a catalyst that supports children's interaction with other people and their surroundings (Robinson et al., Reference ROBINSON, WEBSTER, LOGAN, LUCAS and BARBER2012). During eurhythmic (musical movement) activity, children use their bodies to express themselves. Their movements can have a rhythmic quality, such as using arms and legs to move in response to the tempo (fast/slow) of a rhythm (e.g., run, walk, freeze), and dancing while music is playing (Isenberg & Jalongo, Reference ISENBERG and JALONGO2010). Movement has widespread use in classroom music education as children can ‘invent movements to accompany songs . . . and their own compositions’ (Harwood & Marsh, Reference HARWOOD, MARSH, Welch and McPherson2012, p. 336).

Children can engage spontaneously in creativity in their daily play and activities and because music is a common and enjoyable occurrence in many young children's lives, it is ‘a natural avenue for a young child's creative expression’ (Mayesky, Reference MAYESKY2009, p. 379). Children's expressions of creativity involve cognitive (thinking) and affective (feeling) dimensions. Cognitively, creative behaviour consists of four elements: fluency, flexibility, originality and elaboration; while the affective dimension includes curiosity, complexity, risk-taking, imagination and fantasy (Isenberg & Jalongo, Reference ISENBERG and JALONGO2010). Isenberg and Jalongo (Reference ISENBERG and JALONGO2010) suggest that creativity, imagination, and fantasy are ‘all interrelated types of thinking that largely depend on the ability to use symbols in inventive ways’ (pp. 28–29). As such they are important elements of music programs for young children. However, the idea of enhancing creativity is challenging for kindergarten teachers in Hong Kong as they work in a context that relies on the transmission of knowledge and teacher-centred instructional approaches (Cheung & Leung, Reference CHEUNG and LEUNG2014). After administering a rating scale, Cheung and Leung (Reference CHEUNG and LEUNG2014) found that Chinese kindergarten teachers in Hong Kong were ‘not confident in their own creativity as teachers’ (p. 86). Cheung (Reference CHEUNG2012) also showed that early childhood teachers in Hong Kong had limited understanding of how to promote creativity.

Music programs in Hong Kong kindergartens

Kindergartens in Hong Kong cater for children aged 3–6 years and most operate on a half-day basis with children attending for one three-hour session in the morning or the afternoon, five days per week. They are operated privately by non-profit or for-profit organizations. Many focus on children's academic achievement (Rao & Li, Reference RAO and LI2009) despite the whole child approach found in the Guide (CDC, 2006). Parents expect an academically oriented curriculum, and many teachers also value teacher-oriented approaches (Fung & Lam, Reference FUNG and LAM2012). Hu and Sente (Reference HU and SZENTE2009) reasoned that these parental and teacher perspectives mean that curricula imported from western contexts that emphasize play and child-centred approaches tend to be ineffective in Chinese cultural contexts. A recent study indicated that kindergarten teachers in Hong Kong do not link play with learning and think that children should acquire knowledge at kindergarten (Wu, Reference WU2014). The integrated, whole-child approach recommended in the Guide seems to have been an ongoing challenge as some time ago the Hong Kong Education Bureau published a ‘List of Do's and Don'ts for Kindergarten’ (Education Department, 1999). The List included appropriate and inappropriate content and teaching approaches, with the former including catering for holistic development, play, and respecting children's individual differences; and the latter including the inappropriateness of children aged three and four years being asked to write Chinese characters, being required to memorise content, and experiencing the use of didactic teaching approaches. The transmission approach that characterizes many kindergarten classrooms in Hong Kong translates into children sitting at desks completing worksheets, dictation, spelling, and rote learning tasks (Wong & Lau, Reference WONG and LAU2008).

Because of the focus on an academically oriented curriculum, there is little time for music in many kindergartens. Music is at risk because while it is scheduled in classroom routines on a regular basis, extra time needed for homework or writing activities can be drawn from that allocated to music or physical activities (Ho, Reference HO2015). When music is included, it is often ‘a routine and highly structured component of the curriculum and involves breathing exercises, pitch practice, and an emphasis on the technique of singing songs’ (Lau & Grieshaber, Reference LAU and GRIESHABER2010, p. 128). Practicing songs in large groups in unison is common, with children expected to copy the teacher, and many repetitions are required before they can be performed at the expected high standard (Lau, Reference LAU2008). The number of songs children can sing is often used to judge children's musical development and there is little emphasis on play, creativity or the integration of other subject areas with music (Lau & Grieshaber, Reference LAU and GRIESHABER2010).

Some kindergarten teachers have moved beyond separate subject or discipline specific teaching, but the ‘boundaries between music and other subjects (such as physical fitness and health, language, mathematics, etc.) still exist’ (Lau & Cheong, Reference LAU and CHEONG2008, p. 63). Even though the curriculum framework was designed so learning areas were linked and teachers were encouraged to ‘synthesize/integrate the contents across more than one subject area’ (CDC, 2000, p. 39), this has proved challenging when it comes to integrating music, mainly because in the past the Education Bureau has suggested focusing on teaching new songs, practicing rhythm, and manipulating musical instruments, rather than integration with other subject areas (CDC, 1996). The more recent Guide (CDC, 2006) recommended that kindergartens ‘avoid subject teaching or mere delivery of academic knowledge’ (p. 48) and provides guidance about the appropriate time allocation for physical fitness/music/arts activities: ‘60–105 minutes for full-day kindergartens’ and ‘45–60 for half-day kindergartens’ per day (p. 49). While music is recommended as a daily activity in the teaching schedule among other subjects (CDC, 2006), the delivery of academic knowledge tends to take precedence (Fung & Lam, Reference FUNG and LAM2012; Rao & Li, Reference RAO and LI2009).

Little professional development has been provided in music education and kindergarten teachers must draw on their own knowledge, resources and experience. However, teachers lack confidence in teaching music and often struggle with basic music techniques, not to mention integrating music with other subjects (Wong & Lau, Reference WONG and LAU2008). As a result, integrating music into the curriculum remains a goal, and music teaching in kindergartens in Hong Kong can be rigid and superficial (Lau, Reference LAU2008; Lau & Grieshaber, Reference LAU and GRIESHABER2010). For example, the curriculum often follows a theme from a curriculum teaching kit or syllabus package, and music is one of the routine elements to be taught (Lau & Cheong, Reference LAU and CHEONG2008). The learning activities suggested in the kits emphasise repetitive techniques such as singing, beat, rhythm, tone, and the use of musical instruments in specific ways. The objective is to achieve unity in children's singing, movement or action. The scripted activities mean that children's interests and engagement are often neglected, as is integration with other subjects and any sort of creative content. Teachers can and do use stories to revisit traditional songs, but it is rare that music is used to connect with other subjects.

Purpose of the study

Despite efforts to integrate other subject areas with music in kindergarten programs in Hong Kong, it tends to be taught as a specific subject area. This is reflected in the daily routine of kindergarten classrooms as music is usually allocated a specific time on the timetable. This article investigates one Hong Kong kindergarten teacher's experience in developing an integrated approach to music education and in so doing attempting to move beyond teaching it as a single subject area and relying on children singing in unison as the main part of each lesson. The teacher attempted to integrate other subjects into the music curriculum through movement and games, and by encouraging children's creativity.

The research was undertaken in one kindergarten in Hong Kong that participated in a scheme that was initiated by the Education Bureau to provide school-based support services to enhance the professional capacities of kindergarten teachers in curriculum integration. It was co-organized by the Hong Kong Education Bureau and one of the universities in Hong Kong. Amongst other things, the support service aimed at developing a sharing and reflective culture and enhancing teachers’ capability to stimulate children's learning. As part of the program, the Education Bureau commissioned personnel in tertiary institutions with relevant experience to support teachers in their classrooms (the first author). The first author had two roles. First, she was the researcher responsible for data collection. Second, as per the guidelines from the Education Bureau, she provided onsite support that included feedback after observing lessons; discussing and analyzing the teacher's music lesson plans; oral comments about teaching approaches and implementation, and conducting tripartite discussions with the principal that were aimed at further enhancement of teaching. A detailed written report was prepared for the teacher. The focus of this article is the way in which the teacher adopted an integrated approach to curriculum development with music as the core, and how this was implemented.

Findings and discussion

Data are provided from observations of the children and the teacher during both phases of data collection, as well as data from the individual interview with the teacher following the completion of classroom observations. In what follows, music concepts, movement skills, and creative behaviour (see Appendix C) are discussed as part of the analysis. To provide some contextual information, we begin with an observational snapshot from the first lesson in Phase 1.

The lessons took place in a multi-function classroom where the children attended for half a day in the afternoon session. Two teachers and a pianist were working with 19 children aged five to six years. All music lessons were 45 minutes long. During the first lesson observed, the teacher emphasized music theory and training. All children were required to sing and move in unison, with no opportunity for individual creative vocalizations or actions. Ms. Li used a curriculum kit as the teaching guide, with preset teaching content that was based on the theme of ‘going to school’, because the children were in their last year of kindergarten. Thematic approaches aim to integrate traditional subject areas and are one of several methods used in kindergartens in Hong Kong (Zhu & Zhang, Reference ZHU and ZHANG2008).

Phase 2

There was a two-month break between data gathering in Phases 1 and 2. During this time, the teacher engaged in regular professional conversations with the principal and other colleagues, consulted literature and attended a workshop. A whole day integration workshop was held at the kindergarten and presented by the first author for all teachers. The primary focus was how other subjects can be integrated in a lesson where music is the core, with teachers engaging with content; and design and presentation of integrated lessons.

Integration

In Phase 2 Ms. Li planned more integrated music activities with opportunities for children to experiment with movement, lyrics and rhythm, and musical props. Lessons included the five components of a music programme: composing and improvising with instruments and voice; notation; singing invented and canonic songs; playing instruments, and listening to music (Barrett, Reference BARRETT and Wright2012) (see Appendix A). As well as children singing, dancing and playing games, they also experienced music appreciation, took part in role-play and improvisation, used full body movements, and were encouraged to make individual and group responses (Appendix A). There was some success at integrating other subjects with the music lessons (Appendix A). Children were taught about similar aesthetic elements in related genres. For example, one part of the lesson involved integrating music with physical education and movement, and children pretended to be firefighters, crawling, crossing paper bricks and running around hurdles (Figures 1 & 2). The games incorporated literacy whereby the children followed the rhythm (♫ | ♫ | ♫ | ♫ ) on flashcards, and read the lyrics they had created (Figure 3). Ms. Li's attempts to integrate other subjects with music enabled children to move and create in different ways, resulting in more active engagement and interest. Movement such as this encourages children to interact with each other and the environment (Robinson et al., Reference ROBINSON, WEBSTER, LOGAN, LUCAS and BARBER2012).

Figure 1.

Children crawled like firefighters

Figure 2.

Children ran around hurdles (music and physical education)

Figure 3.

Children expressed rhythmic language

As the examples show, Ms. Li grew more confident in designing teaching activities that integrated subject areas in Phase 2. She provided more opportunities for children to move their bodies to music in creative ways. The integration workshop and activities (presented by the first author) assisted Ms. Li not only in designing music lessons, but also broadened her knowledge of different approaches to integration. She also consulted music and movement reference books in the kindergarten that had examples of integration. Her attempts at integrating music and creative movement were more informed than the lessons in Phase 1.

Music concepts and movement

Children were taught about and then given opportunities to detect changes in tempo and rhythm (fast and slow) and respond accordingly. In Lesson 8, the teacher used the song Firefighters (Appendix A). When they heard the siren in crotchet time, the children pretended to drive the fire engine at a slower pace. When they sang ‘the fire engine is coming’ in quaver time, the fire engine went faster, showing appropriate responses to tempo and rhythm. Children imitated firefighters hosing buildings, and showed understanding of dynamics and accents (strong and weak). For instance, they were encouraged to shoot the hose upward on the downbeat when they heard the first strong beat, and shoot downward in the weak beat. Children also detected changes in tempo, responding by running, skipping and tiptoeing in different directions when they recomposed the lyrics to fit the right rhythm/meter by using a familiar melody. This combination of creative expression (Mayesky, Reference MAYESKY2009) in response to changes in the tempo (Isenberg & Jalongo, Reference ISENBERG and JALONGO2010) enabled children to be challenged cognitively in terms of the complexity of the task and the combination of fluency and flexibility required (Isenberg & Jalongo, Reference ISENBERG and JALONGO2010). Once a strong feeling of beat is established, a beat can be ‘felt’ even if it is not specifically heard. Some children could identify the recurring pattern in the song ♫ | ♫ ; firefighters, firefighters (pattern works with Chinese but not English words); and the recurring pattern ♫ ♫ | ♫ when climbing the ladder to rescue those caught in the fire. This experience and later discussion deepened understanding of recurring patterns and their similarities and differences that incorporated the use of symbols (Isenberg & Jalongo, Reference ISENBERG and JALONGO2010). Music appreciation appeared in the last part of Lesson 8. Children listened to Doll's Dream as a way of calming, driving the fire engine to the fire station according to the music. The teacher led a discussion about how firefighters might feel after putting out a fire and rescuing people. Using imagination in this way can assist children in understanding the complexity and risk taking (Isenberg & Jalongo, Reference ISENBERG and JALONGO2010) involved in fire fighting.

The children were encouraged to perform a variety of creative movements based on the story and make use of the space available. They moved in different directions (up, down, left, right) when the music ‘pointed’ them and used a prop for steering the fire engine. They participated in creative games using ‘sol’ and ‘la’ hand bells to produce the same notes as the horns in the Firefighters song, and tried mimicking the horns (sol, la, sol, la), which resulted in creating a more realistic sound of a siren. These experiences with instruments help children develop understandings of timbre. In rhythmic speech games, the children experimented with sound and rhythm (Mayesky, Reference MAYESKY2009), created lyrics (Barrett, Reference BARRETT and Wright2012) for ♫ | ♫ | ♫ | ♫ , and came up with ‘Firefighters are so brave, Firefighters are so heroic’, showing originality with rhythmic language. They enjoyed the experience and were able to be imaginative in response to the music, in addition to creating new lyrics while singing and role-playing.

During the interview, Ms. Li stated that the discussions with and feedback from the principal enhanced her understanding of curriculum and lesson design:

I was less dependent on the teaching kits that I had used before, and the lessons in Phase 2 were more child-centred because the children were actively engaged for greater periods of time . . . I thought the objectives in the lesson plans were more specific and clearer than in Phase 1 . . . The interactions between me and children and among children increased; I became more aware of the children's needs and interests through discussing and interacting with them . . . I used resources and props more frequently than in Phase 1 and found myself becoming a little more confident in integrating other subject areas with music. (Interview, 9 June 2009)

Teachers unfamiliar with implementing integrated curricula are advised to ‘start small’ perhaps using a theme (Zhbanova et al., Reference ZHBANOVA, RULE, MONTGOMERY and NIELSEN2010), and to rely less on instruction kits; two things that Ms. Li did. After observing Lesson 8, the principal commented positively and constructively that Ms. Li's teaching was more integrated and consistent with the theme. Ms. Li indicated that ‘A closer relationship was built with the principal . . . and I felt that the principal had helped significantly to improve my teaching quality’ (Interview, 9 June 2009).

Despite these changes, the children were not automatically inspired to engage in the music activities and encouragement was needed. Ms. Li indicated that interactions between herself and the children had increased, and the first author suggested in the interview that the teacher could aim for a further increase. While not mentioned to the teacher, interaction between the teacher and the children was still quite low, despite increasing from what had been observed in the lessons in Phase 1. Ms. Li mentioned that her attempts ‘to integrate focused primarily on the design of the lessons . . . I sometimes overlooked the use of teaching resources, more teacher-child interaction and the importance of the teaching space, as my focus remained the lessons running smoothly’ (Interview: 9 June 2009). Concern with lessons running smoothly shows the emphasis on routine elements and the lack of confidence to use resources and encourage more interaction (Lau & Cheong, Reference LAU and CHEONG2008).