The two volumes under review might seem complementary, but they are antipodes; conceptually, diachronically and above all paradigmatically. The proceedings Romans and Natives in the Danubian Provinces (1st–6th C. ad) of the 5th International Conference on Roman Danubian Provinces rest on affirmed theoretical and methodological frameworks, consistently integrating diverse topics within the chronological and geographical framework of the Roman reign in the Danube provinces. The volume is built upon current theoretical standpoints, including post-colonial approaches, Romanisation and glocalisation, while drawing on plausible methodological repertoires, frequently interdisciplinary. Hadiji’s The Perpetuation of the Cult of the Danubian Knights in the Mythology of the Balkan Peninsula begins where the proceedings end. Its ethnoarchaeological approach is underpinned by the concept of Old Europe developed by M. Gimbutas, noticing some of the elements of the Thracian Rider and the Danubian Horsemen Cult within Balkan Folk Christianity far beyond the Roman Empire.
Hadiji’s monograph sets out the ethnological occurrences that might have been derived from late antiquity cult fusion phenomena, but stops short of presenting the materiality of the religion of the aforementioned cults. While iconography and the distribution of material culture is undeniably a key element in any study of these two cults, the book offers no deeper insight into the iconography of these two cults nor their genesis and evolution in Roman times. While Hadiji’s book is an English translation of an earlier version published in Romanian in 2023, derived from a certainly more extensive Ph.D. thesis, in this form it remains devoid of relevant Roman-period context, be it social, historical or archaeological. As such, the book assumes readers’ exceptional prior acquaintance with the subject of the Danubian Horsemen and the Thracian Rider Cults. To a reader thus informed, which is a conditio sine qua non, the book offers insight into post-Roman ethnological appropriations. The book retrospectively observes similarities between two Roman-period cults and Christian customs through the eternal circularity, fertility cults and the perpetuated struggle of Good and Evil. This implies that such forms of meaning could be hidden behind the visuality of the two Roman cults, which is a hypothesis of debatable plausibility.
On the other hand, the publication of the extensive proceedings of a relatively recent instalment in a series of well-established conferences on the Danubian Provinces represents a commitment to the continuity of scholarly output on the region. The volume opens with a brief editors’ introduction and commemorative section by A. Mastino, dedicated to the late Angela Donati. The volume includes 27 contributions connected by the key idea of focusing on the multi-layered process of intertwining ‘Roman’ and ‘native’ in the area. Spatially and diachronically, the scope is clearly defined in the title. The volume assembles contributions of empirical, methodological and theoretical significance. It is underpinned by a clear awareness of pertinent epistemological insufficiencies, which are addressed in a persuasive manner. The papers are written in English, German, Italian or French. While such an editorial policy mirrors the international spirit and linguistic pluralism, it may limit accessibility to some readers. The majority of the papers stand out for the quality of their paradigms and their fresh hypotheses. The scope of the volume and the diversity of the contributions will make this book, or at least individual papers, valuable for any readers whose interests lead them to the Danubian provinces of the Roman Empire.
The first of the four sections, ‘General Issues’, begins with the paper ‘Romans and “Natives”: Einige grundlegende Überlegungen’; this opens a theoretical and historiographical framework for Roman–native relations reassessing the concept of ‘Romanisation’ and advocating a more nuanced model of cultural interaction. K. Strobel not only emphasises the interaction between imperial structures and local agency, but also sets up the broad frame for the topic while questioning the boundaries and testing fundaments of given epistemology. This paper is a cornerstone of the volume. The article ‘Le guerre balcanico-danubiane di Crasso’ by D. Redaelli examines the military campaigns led by Crassus in the Danubian regions. Analysing the historical and political context, Redaelli highlights the ideological dimensions of Augustan narratives. R. Ardevan examines the long-term impact of Romanisation in the Danubian provinces through the example of the gens Aelia. Ardevan identifies the explanatory potential of this case study for a broader process of social elite formations and cultural integration on the Danubian frontier. The central argument of ‘Zum Kultprofil der Legio XIII Gemina: Die Suche nach geeigneten Parametern’ by M. Hainzmann is that the religious identity of Legio XIII Gemina was neither uniform nor static, but rather shaped by a combination of the official Roman military cult and local religious traditions in the regions where the legion was stationed. L. Mrozewicz, in ‘Die administrative Lage der Donauprovinzen zur Zeit Mark Aurels’, analyses the relations between civil and military authorities in times of crisis during the Marcomannic Wars. In ‘Familles de Barbares dans la tourmente et reliefs des colonnes historiées’ M. Popescu focuses on iconography. He proposes that reliefs should be perceived as carefully constructed visual narratives that reflect Roman ideological messaging rather than objective historical documentation. The main argument of ‘Donations édilitaires des esclaves et des affranchis dans les provinces de Dacie et de Mésie Inférieure’ by A. Honcu is that slaves and freedmen in Dacia and Lower Moesia were not excluded from the public sphere, but rather actively participated in shaping urban space and social relations in the province as aediles or in other forms of public benefaction. The rest of the volume structure is organised according to Roman provinces.
Part 2 focuses on Dalmatia and Pannonia. M. Sanader, in ‘Sentona und Ika – Histrische oder liburnische Gottheiten’, challenges the long-standing attribution of these deities to the Liburnian cultural sphere. Drawing on epigraphic evidence, the spatial distribution, and supporting historical and onomastic data, she argues that all securely attested dedications are concentrated in Istria and the north-eastern Adriatic under Histrian influence, with no finds from the core Liburnian territory. She questions the equation of archaeological distribution with ethnic boundaries in Illyricum and concludes that the Liburnian identification of these cults is insufficiently supported, leaving open the possibility of a Histrian or even broader origin. L.C. Formato’s contribution puts ‘Romans and Natives in North-Western Pannonia’ in focus. It stands out for its exemplary integration of iconographic, epigraphic and stratigraphic evidence in reconstructing rural population structures in north-western Pannonia. Her approach demonstrates the potential of interdisciplinary methodologies for addressing long-standing questions about social organisation beyond urban centres. Z. Kaczmarek’s contribution posts a question ‘Where did the Gods Live?’ The intensive discussion of urbanisation and religious life further nuances the relationship between civic structures and cultic practices, avoiding teleological models of ‘Romanisation’.
Part 3 shifts the focus to Dacia, reflecting the vitality of current research in this province recognised as a vast field of debates on imperial expansion and cultural change. ‘I Daci dopo la conquista’ by L. Zerbini represents a synthesis of the post-conquest period and offers a balanced reassessment of continuity and transformation, while Piso’s contribution, ‘La Dacie Poétique’, introduces an original and thought-provoking perspective on literary and cultural representations. Particularly noteworthy is C.H. Opreanu’s study of Porolissum, which reframes interactions with ‘barbarians’ not merely in terms of conflict but also of exchange and daily coexistence. R. Varga’s demographic study of Germisara complements the theoretical and methodological standpoint by grounding broader interpretations in detailed local analysis.
Part 4, the most extensive section, addresses Moesia and the south Danubian space from the Early Empire to late antiquity. Here the volume’s chronological breadth becomes especially evident. Contributions range from Z. Dimitrov’s synthesis of historical and archaeological data from Ratiaria to A. Teatini’s discussion of Christian communities in Danubian fortresses. M. Tapavički-Ilić, in ‘Roman Merchandise before and after the Roman Conquest’, examines the circulation, usage and distribution of Roman imports in the Danube and Sava regions of present-day Serbia across the Late Iron Age and the early Roman period. Using grave assemblages from Scordiscian cemeteries and comparative evidence from early Roman settlements, she demonstrates that luxury Roman goods, especially Samian ware, bronze wine-drinking vessels and imported ceramics were already reaching local elites before the conquest, primarily via a long-distance trade network. After inclusion of the area into the Roman Empire, the pattern of consumption shifts. Roman goods become more widespread and diversified, with increased presence of amphorae, glassware, lamps and military-related artefacts, reflecting new consumer groups such as Roman soldiers and Italics. These changes in material culture primarily reflect transformations in trade networks, social elites and consumption practices rather than abrupt cultural replacement. Several papers stand out for their precision and methodological rigour, including A.-I. Pázsint’s prosopographical study of women in Tomis (‘Contribution à la prosopographie de Tomis: Les femmes’) and M. Alexianu’s nuanced analysis of trilingualism in Moesia Inferior (‘Moesia Inferior: Trilingualism Premises and Indicators’). The inclusion of detailed epigraphic studies, such as the publication of ‘A New Military Diploma from Ibida’, by Mihailescu-Bîrliba and D. Paraschiv, underscores the volume’s value as a repository of primary empirical data as well as providing epistemologically up-to-date interpretations. The paper by I. Topalilov, ‘New Data on the Topography of Ratiaria’, argues that the Posta area of Ratiaria was not just a peripheral necropolis, but a long-used and evolving zone that began as a first-century military-linked settlement, likely connected to a detachment of Legio VII Claudia. It later developed into a mixed sacred and urban space, possibly including a temple of Diana, before being integrated into the expanding late Roman city. In late antiquity the area was eventually abandoned and reused as a Christian cemetery, reflecting the broader transformation of the city over time. ‘Gab es im Jahr 283 n. Chr. zwei dakische Provinzen südlich der Donau?’ While one might rigidly answer affirmatively, in the essay entitled thus F. Mitthof and F. Matei-Popescu re-examine a bronze plaque dated to 283 ce. Based on a new reading with detailed epigraphic analysis and spatial circumstances of the plaque provenance, the authors soundly propose a reconsideration of the existence of two Dacias (Mediterranea and Ripensis) in illo tempore, south of the Danube stretch. G. von Bülow, in ‘Die Palastbauten des Kaisers Galerius als Zeugnis für die kaiserliche Machtpräsentation in der Metropole und in der Provinz’, analyses two modalities of shaping and communicating imperial propaganda during the Tetrarchy. C. Farre, in ‘Società e cultura nel Municipium Tropaeum (Moesia Inferior)’, presents a survey of the ethnically and culturally heterogeneous population, while identifying the monument as a model of identity formation and a mechanism of integration in the Lower Danubian provinces. In ‘Female Anthroponymy in Moesia Inferior: Derivational Suffixes’ R.-G. Curcă integrates linguistic, social and prosopographical approaches to demonstrate how naming practices reflect broader processes of cultural interaction, identity formation and Romanisation in Lower Moesia. A. Ibba discusses the legal status of Troesmis, while L. Radulova examines gladiatorial games as indicators of Romanisation, focusing on the munerarii through epigraphic evidence. These individuals were consistently Roman citizens belonging to the local elite, often holding civic and religious offices, particularly within the imperial cult. Significantly, their onomastic and social profiles reveal that many had only recently become integrated into social structures, maintaining elements of local identity. The organisation of gladiatorial games thus functioned as a means of social distinction and a display of cultural alignment with Rome. Most importantly, as Romanisation advanced, this practice appears to have lost its prestige, suggesting that munera were most meaningful in contexts of pronounced tension between local and Roman identities.
Hadiji’s volume opens with a preface by S. Ciutacu and a foreword by the author that clarify the genesis of this work; the main body consists of two chapters and a conclusion and is accompanied by nine black-and-white figures.
The first chapter ‘Historical Conditions’ establishes the historical and theoretical framework that is followed by a discussion of the conditions under which Christianity spread in the Danubian provinces of the Roman Empire. Hadiji defines the emergence of Folk Christianity as a syncretic phenomenon shaped by previously merged imperial structures and local religious substrata. She emphasises the permeability between official doctrine and indigenous belief systems, arguing for a model of religious acculturation in which pre-Christian motifs were neither fully eradicated nor passively preserved, but actively reconfigured. Hadiji addresses folklore as a historical source. Drawing on comparative ethnology and the history of religions, she argues that oral traditions, ritual practices and mythological narratives preserve structurally meaningful survivals of ancient religious systems. This methodological position underpins the study and aligns the work with broader debates on longue durée cultural continuity and ritual transformation. The second and more substantial section focuses on ‘The Romanian Space and other Balkan Areas’. It presents a wide-ranging corpus of evidence drawn from archaeology, ethnography and iconography focusing on a broad rather than an in-depth analysis. Hadiji examines survivals of the so-called Great God and Goddess traditions, linking them to the Danubian Horsemen Cult and to later Christian figures such as St George and St Demetrius. Particular attention is given to ritual calendars, seasonal customs, funerary practices and elements of rural material culture, all of which are interpreted as carriers of pre-Christian symbolic structures. In the conclusion Hadiji proposes that some elements in local tradition, notably in folklore, can be perceived as reminiscences of the Danubian Horsemen and Thracian Rider Cults.
The ethnoarchaeological study delves into the idea behind the cults whose actuality should be dated to the third and fourth centuries ce. It should be attractive to a small, almost expert readership with ample background knowledge on the cults, who will be able to understand and critically assess this discussion and the new hypotheses based on comparison of vivid ethnological elements with the late antiquity materiality of religion.
The Proceedings follow established paths. With small steps, they push the epistemological wheel forward, reaching a broader range of readers interested in the Roman legacy of the Danube region. The volume encompasses a wide range of topics including epigraphy, iconography, prosopography, onomastics, religion, imperial propaganda, social studies, legislation, historiography and the Roman army. Scholars engaged with the archaeology of the Danube provinces as well as with concepts such as Romanisation, glocalisation and creolisation will find this volume particularly valuable. Its strength lies in its diversity. The contributions collectively demonstrate a balance of empirical rigour, methodological sophistication, theoretical engagement and critical awareness. Academia will surely benefit from this rich and diverse volume.
