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Introduction
In some societies, the environment is seen as the manifestation of the Great Spirit, and elements of the ecosystem, as embodiments of deities and spirits. It is apparent among some Native Americans (Delaney Reference Delaney2009) and African societies (Kanu Reference Kanu and Kanu2021). It contrasts sharply with the Western anthropocentric view of the environment that accords supremacy to humankind and sees other entities of the environment as resources to be exploited (Boslaugh Reference Boslaugh2016). In the cosmology of the Igbo of southeastern Nigeria, all the entities of the ecosystem are imbued with life and concomitant spirits. The environment is, thus, not only material but also spiritual and sacred, and is accorded due respect as such.
Alaigbo (Igboland), the homeland of the Igbo, is located in southeastern Nigeria on a land area of about 40,000 square kilometres. The language, also known as Igbo, belongs to the Kwa language group of West and Central Africa. The estimated population of the Igbo is thirty-three million (Central Intelligence Agency 2020), and it is one of the three major ethnic groups in Nigeria. Precolonial political organisation in Alaigbo (before 1882) was decentralised, diversified, and built on lineage affiliations of Umunna (relatives), the basic patrilineal family unit of political organisation. A clan is made up of a number of Umunna, and a village consists of several clans. Villages have little differences in culture, dialects, and social organisation. The Igbo are mainly Christians; however, a few practice the Indigenous religion and other faiths. Many aspects of the autochthonous religious belief system permeate the ways of life of the modern Igbo, even when they profess Christianity as most do. Forchu (Reference Forchu2023: 45) noted that “the transatlantic slave trade and recent migrations have resulted in many Igbo and their descendants residing outside Alaigbo, and, in fact, all over the world.”
Western anthropocentric perspectives adopted by the Igbo of southeastern Nigeria in the wake of colonial administration resulted in unsustainable environmental practices and neglect of the Igbo Indigenous ecological knowledge system (IIEKS). Consequently, Igbo music scholarship pays little or no attention to the Indigenous conceptualisation of environment embedded in the music, despite the current growing global interest in concepts of place and space in music.
There is a dearth of engagement with the environment by music scholars in Nigeria. A few literatures stand out, for instance, Titus (Reference Titus2019, Reference Titus2021). Even though some Igbo ethnomusicologists (Okafor Reference Okafor2005; Nzewi and Galane Reference Nzewi and Galane2005) suggest spiritual connection between Igbo music and land, they provide little knowledge on conceptualisation of the environment in music. Sadly, the worldwide community is deprived of the rich perspectives and conceptualisations of the environment as enshrined in Igbo music philosophy and practice, within which observations of some cultural tenets that have for centuries sustained environmental equilibrium can be accessed. This investigation will fill the gap by examining references, connotations, and elucidations of the environment in mbem music through the lens of Igbo Indigenous environmental knowledge system. I chose mbem music because of its rich engagement with the environment.
This article aims to access how mbem (speak-singing), an Indigenous Igbo style, implicates and explicates the environment in southeastern Nigeria. It seeks to achieve an informed understanding of how the Igbo create meaning and give expression to the environment in the face of its rapid exploitation and degradation. I intend to provide more insights into how IIEKS succeeded in managing and maintaining environmental sustainability in Igboland.
This seminal study in Alaigbo reveals how Igbo traditional musicians of mbem engage the environment, particularly Ala, through music, in the quest for ecological sustainability and social progress. It dismantles prejudiced conceptualisations of IIEKS that resulted from colonialism.
Mbem music is an ancient Igbo Indigenous music style that is performed in a speak-singing style. Mbem is a part of Igbo literature. Accordingly, Nwoga (Reference Nwoga1984: 7) describes it as “recitatious chant” and classifies it under Igbo “recitative and declamatory type of poetry.” He assigns the ritual poetry type used in igba afa, igoo ofo, (divinations, prayers) and other forms of communication with spirits and deities. Mbem is sometimes accompanied by a few musical instruments, such as drums, but most of the time it is unaccompanied. The speak-singing technique is also found in other types of musical genres. For instance, funeral dirges, introductory to dances, etc.
Words are the most important element of mbem technique. Mbem contains a treasure trove of Igbo literary resources through which tales, philosophies and current affairs are glimpsed. In agreement with this assertion, Nwoga (Reference Nwoga1984: 8) notes that the “essential characteristic of the mbem type of poetry is that it is an open form not only in terms of the line length and stanza length, but also in connection with content in a given performance…” and that the free style of mbem, “requires the greatest height of linguistic and imagistic ability in the performer.” Originally, it was performed by the nmonwu (spirit-manifest)Footnote 1 cultFootnote 2 to inform, educate, and entertain. Today mbem has moved into the human world and in addition to spirit-manifest performers, can now be performed by anyone who is able to master the art.
Decolonisation entails ending colonialism, a situation in which imperial nations establish political control and dominate the resources and affairs of foreign territories. Betts (Reference Betts, Bogaerts and Raben2021) asserts that it includes undoing cultural, economic, and psychological damages that ensured from the prejudices and subjugation of the colonised peoples. Nabobo-Baba (Reference Nabobo-Baba2006) and Smith (Reference Smith2013) advocate decolonisation of knowledge and promotion of traditional ecological knowledge—a body of knowledge that had been garnered over centuries from direct experiences of Indigenous peoples as they related with the environment. It will entail accessing Indigenous knowledge as it was before colonialism, reexamining their usefulness, discarding irrelevant ones, and adapting or adopting relevant ones for use in the present reality, as the case may be.
The Igbo, like many Indigenous peoples, have their own shares of such knowledge and practices. They are keenly conscious of the harmful effects of excessive exploitation of natural resources and the principles that govern relationships with the environment. In some cases, they have certain rituals that help them remember to practice moderation and respect for the environment in order to ensure harmony in the space. For instance, before each planting season, each farmer sacrifices a cock to Ala, the deity and owner of the land. Obiakor, Onuora, and Ngozi (Reference Obiakor, Theresa and Ngozi2018: 69) note that “The Igbo man’s level of obedience/submission to the spiritual and physical superiority of the mother earth determines the returns he gets from agricultural produce and the overall harmony he enjoys in his habitat including supply of other natural resources like water.” A similar instance is that of Monica Ike (personal communication, 2015), who explained that before she would harvest abuba ofe,Footnote 3 she must approach the plant in humility, respectfully clap her hand two times in greeting, before proceeding to harvest the vegetable. She would allow for a minimum period of two days to expire before her next harvest. She was made to understand as a child, that failure to keep to the proper timing will cause the plant to feel disrespected and consequently, it will not bring forth enough leaves for her use. This attitude of moderation in harvesting resources, respect, cooperation of the source of the reserves, was applied holistically to the ecology. It checked excessive exploitation and unsustainable environment and allowed for the regeneration of resources for future use. The young and the old of the Igbo were trained on the organisation and preservation of the environment and that was enshrined in the religion, social and political life (Obiakor, Onuora and Nnebedum Reference Obiakor, Theresa and Ngozi2018). Intangible cultural heritage including proverbs, folklores, and music was greatly used in this education. A good number of such knowledge resided and still resides in traditional Igbo music, that is, those that survived the colonial subjugation. The establishment of the colonial administration caused the annihilation of the bond and collective spirit which was instrumental in maintaining social order. Unfortunately, colonialism also destroyed to a large extent the humane relationship that the Igbo had with the environment. Sponsel (Reference Sponsel and Leeming2014) and Grim and Tucker (Reference Grim and Tucker2014) explain that perception and conceptualisation about the environment determine the attitude and behaviour towards it. This relationship was possible as a result of the concepts and philosophies that generate the world view of the Igbo.
The Cosmology of the Igbo People
The Indigenous Igbo religion is based on Chukwu, the One Supreme Being who created and controls the universe, home to a pantheon of deities and spirits, humans, plants, animals, elements, and minerals. Chukwu is genderless, almighty, unfathomable to human understanding, and does not relate directly with them. Ilogu (Reference Ilogu1974) explains that deities and spirits embodied in the ecology (rocks, trees, rivers, mountains, hills, plants, and others) manifest Chukwu, and have particular tasks assigned to them by the Almighty through which they mediate human life. Ala is the most revered and the leader of all the spirits and gods/goddesses. She birthed all of them and is the controller of fertility, beauty, and justice. The residence of Ala is (ala) the land. Of particular importance, according to Nwaigbo (Reference Nwaigbo, Odimegwu, Asiegbu and Izunwa2015) were the spirits of the ancestors who protected, interceded for them and brought about many forms of blessings, including good health and life to the human community. In consequence, the Igbo saw themselves as being intrinsically linked to the environment, another aspect of a part of the arrangement of the earth, just like the stars, sun, moon, mountains, rivers, plants, animals, stones, valleys, and not superior in any way to them. This understanding is in contrast to the Christian theology that appropriates to man a superior status to all creation. The IIEKS demanded respect from humans to other elements of the environment, such as bushes, rivers, valleys, rocks, and others, because they are homes to spirits, some of whom may even have more powers and authorities than them.
Since the Almighty dwelt in all the members of the ecology, it was imperative that dignity, care and respect be accorded to them in all relationships. Nwaigbo (Reference Nwaigbo, Odimegwu, Asiegbu and Izunwa2015:108) sees the indwelling of God, not as an authoritarian power, but rather as the vital power of social justice in the contemporary human world. He opines, “In these words, we find the link with the whole problem of ecology in our contemporary world, and in them social justice is present as an issue in ecological crisis.” Collectively, these factors constitute a worldview aligned with pro-environmentalism. This world view enabled the Igbo to realise that there are other inhabitants of the environment that deserved consideration in the way the environment was treated and used. Failure to keep those norms had dire consequences on the whole universe. Thus, the earth was not an object of manipulation by individuals or economic forces; rather, it was to be shown respect and principles of reciprocity and justice.
Vaughan-Lee (Reference Vaughan-Lee2017) notes that monotheistic, patriarchal, and anthropocentric perspectives which strip the environment of spiritual attributes are responsible for destructive attitude towards the ecology since it is seen as commodity, and opportunity for socioeconomic gain. Nzewi and Galane (Reference Nzewi and Galane2005) argues that environment in Africa engages representations, ideas, imaginations of relationships between humans, non-humans and the metaphysical. In agreement Kanu (Reference Kanu and Kanu2021), observes that African ecological principles focus on a symbiotic interconnectedness, interrelatedness, and reciprocity of the physical and the spiritual. Through colonisation, Indigenous traditions were subjugated, and the consequences were disastrous for the environment and the people.
Unity of the whole environment is the ultimate expression of life, which is of primary importance and occupies a dominant position in Igbo philosophy. The universe is conceived as one indivisible reality. According to Nweke and Nwoye (Reference Nweke and Nwoye2016: 107) “No fixed dichotomy exists between nature and human beings, the sacred and the secular, the terrestrial, water existents, those living in trees, etc.” There is no compartmentalisation of this attitude in the daily activities of the Igbo. They “show a sense of connectedness with nature’s divine powers, and as such, go after a model of harmony and balance in their interaction with the environment” (Nweke and Nwoye Reference Nweke and Nwoye2016: 107). Consequently, exploitation of nature is not permissible and possible since everything in the environment is imbued with a spirit. Thus, in the operation of the principles of subsidiarity, non-humans and human beings in the ecology intermingle to help bring order to the environment.
Responsibility, moral obligations as well as the elimination of inequalities are imperative for the care of the environment in order to ensure the sustainability of humanity and the ecology. Thus, Ritskes (Reference Ritskes2012) and Grim and Tucker (Reference Grim and Tucker2014) advocate for the need to reassess, recognise the sacredness of creation and to adopt spiritual attitudes and behaviours. They also call for collaboration with religious communities and openness to different perspectives. Moolla (Reference Moolla and Moolla2018) and Mthatiwa (Reference Mthatiwa and Moolla2018) observe a recent broadening of the scope of conceptualisation of the environment to accommodate commitment to social and political dimensions, including politics of colonisation and decolonisation. Igbo concept of environment is holistic, entailing renewal of harmony among biotic, abiotic, the spiritual, and humans in a shared ecological setting. Ala, the earth goddess, recreates and nurtures the ecosystem, and maintains harmony through instruments of reward and punishment. Music, a principal and collaborative medium in a typical African environment, conveys spiritual and ecological awareness (Titus Reference Titus2021).
Employing ethnomusicological research methods, I observed life and accessed online performances of mbem, and I interviewed four-well versed individuals in Igbo culture, and two mbem musicians. Additionally, I held focus group discussions with two groups of knowledgeable individuals in Igbo musical traditions.
Songs collected for this investigation are those that engage the environment as mythological and sociocultural entity. I critically analysed their concepts, musical structure, performance practice, social and cultural contents. I accessed forty mbem songs, and I selected ten for in-depth analysis that directly and indirectly engaged Igbo principles on the environment. These include those of the spirit-manifests of Otakaagu of Nanka and Eseso Agbala, and popular mbem musicians such as Okechukwu Udechukwu alias Odejimjim and Ugwumba Igbo. Mbem is a musical technique that may form part of a larger performance of various styles of music. For example, at the beginning of a performance of the dance ensemble, the mbem technique may form the introductory part. However, this paper focuses on such performances where the mbem style of “speak-singing” is used throughout the music.
In order to elucidate how the Igbo create meaning and give expression to the environment in the face of its rapid exploitation and degradation, it is imperative to unpack the notion of Egbe belu Ugo belu (let the hawk perch, let the eagle perch), then proceed to consolidate the principle of African feminist motherism theory (AFMT), and the ecomusicological approach. All these intersect at a concern for environmental sustainability and social process, and they are critical for examining and interpreting the environment as a material, spiritual, and sociocultural entity.
Egbe Belu Ugo Belu (Let the Hawk Perch, Let the Eagle Perch)
In the above Igbo axiom, representations and symbolism of the birds are used to illustrate the principles of peaceful co-existence and social justice. In this case, the birds in question are the hawk (milvus migrans) and the eagle (haliaeetus vocifer). The complete phrase of the axiom states: Egbe belu ugo belu nke si ibe ya ebena, nku kwaa ya (Let the hawk and the Eagle perch, anyone that says no to the other, may its wings break). The phrase is often used in consolidating social justice, order, co-operation, unity, and peaceful co-existence. It emphasises fair play and the freedom to hold firm to one’s endeavours.
In Igbo tradition, the eagle symbolises royalty, beauty, and prestige while the hawk signifies commonness and disruption. The proverb demonstrates that opposites can coexist without causing unhealthy rivalry that could destabilise the system. Rather than viewing social stratification as a barrier to peaceful coexistence, the Igbo world view sees social strata as the natural ordering of things. This concept is also internalised in the relationship with all entities of the environment. Although the Eagle surpasses the hawk in all desirable qualities, there is no prejudice when Ala relates with them, as the high and the low are treated with equity. They are all expected to obey rules and regulations of the society as Ala will swiftly, without hesitation, “break the wings of any one” that fails to conform to Igbo tenets of peaceful coexistence and justice, irrespective of its social ranking. The breaking of wings signifies retributive punishment. When the wings of a bird are broken, it can no longer fly away to protect itself from predators, and it will ultimately be killed and eaten by another animal. The consequences of reward and punishment involved in breaking or keeping the proper codes of conduct are driving forces that maintain order and peace in Igbo society. Ekeopara (Reference Ekeopara2021: 21) explained that the aforementioned proverb highlights “communal values and the preeminence of the collective will of the community over the individual will.” Self-interest as opposed to collective interest is destructive to the well-being of the society and is punishable in order to curb self-centredness. The principles of Egbe belu ugo belu (in short) reinforces unity in diversity and is apt in understanding Igbo worldview as it relates with the diverse entities of the ecology.
According to Nzewi, Galane, Nzewi (Reference Nzewi and Nzewi2007: 28) the “ancestry of African Indigenous knowledge conceived the musical arts to encode and perform the worldview, the philosophy of life, as well as the social-political systems of African peoples.” Hence, Igbo Indigenous musical practices are determined by cultural philosophies and theories that are generated by concerns for the well-being of individuals and the society. The selected songs used in this article, therefore, are located directly and/or indirectly within the Igbo ideology of inclusivity, reciprocity, and cooperation with the environment. These principles nurture respect, justice, and peaceful co-existence, not only among human beings but also with the metaphysical and the whole ecosystem.
The African Feminist Motherism Theory (AFMT) and Ala (the Earth Goddess)
The African motherism theory is based on the maternal task of nurturing the society (Nkealah Reference Nkealah2016). Feminist theories aim to promote justice for women through concentrating and analysing inequalities in gender responsibilities. Wang (Reference Wang2018) explained that Western feminism addresses, supports, and promotes the rights of females as human beings and resists prejudice and marginalisation of women. As a result of these theories being drawn from a large array of disciplinary views—political, cultural, economic and social—their strategies and conclusions often vary. AFMT and other African feminist theories came into being as a result of the failure of Western feminist theories to address important issues of colonialism, race, class, historical injustices, and particular needs of African women living in Africa.
According to Acholonu (Reference Acholonu1995), motherism entails principles of motherhood, nature, and caregiving. Enclosed within this concept are the forces that generate procedures and creation of societal structures and arrangements in association with Mother Nature. Nkealah (Reference Nkealah2016) highlights society-nurturing maternal tasks of AFMT, which include core values of cooperation, caregiving, tolerance, love, and long-suffering. These values are essential for unity in a balanced ecosystem. Forchu (Reference Forchu2023: 51) explained that “Motherism also connotes sustainability of the environment as it strives to protect and nurture, rather than degrade or endanger the natural biotic systems, for optimal maintenance of balance and society.” This assertion is based on the intrinsic connection between sustainable maintenance of the natural environment and optimal balance in society. In this article, the elements of AFMT are linked to the role of Ala, the mother earth goddess, in maintaining the ecology and society.
Mbem Through the Prism of Ecomusicology
Ecomusicology examines relationships between music/sound (textual and performative) and the natural environment within cultural and social contexts in order to chart a path for a better understanding of environmental sustainability and human development. Its multidisciplinary approach affords it a broad and flexible stance. Allen (Reference Allen2013) notes that this method provides spaces for interaction with scholars in other fields. Additionally, Taylor (Reference Taylor2011) had previously accorded vital importance to participation in discussions on music and environmental degradation because of the new challenges and opportunities it provides for scholars, artistes and the audience. I argue that cooperation and reciprocity inextricably constitute the bedrock upon which conceptualisation of the environmental entity and the well-being of Igbo society are situated, as shown in the selected mbem songs.
Mbem Musical Performance
Mbem performances usually take place during social occasions such as festivals and ceremonies, and private events. During performances, mbem musicians are appreciated with monetary gifts, literary showered on them and/or on the floor (ị bọ ego).Footnote 4 One, two, or three individuals may perform mbem; however, only one individual may chant at a time. When two musicians perform, they take turns to chant. This type of performance is observed in the musical video of Agbala and Okwuanyionu.Footnote 5 The performance of mbem (ima mbem) is usually solo, but during competition there may be duets, two performers competing with each other in the fluency and knowledge of the literary resources of the language and the skill of extemporisation. The musical performance may be accompanied by a few musical instruments, such as the bell and oja (the Igbo flute).
Entertainment and commercial gains are clothed in the garb of comments on social and political events, philosophies, counsels, caution, and information, praises and appreciation of the generosity of certain wealthy individuals, as well as praises and prayers to God. Performances may start with an introduction by the oja and/or sometimes by a voice from the audience calling out praise and stage names of musicians. The main performance takes the form of declamatory utterances which run throughout the performance. Occasionally, a performance is accompanied by intermittent ringing of the bell. Sometimes one or two phrases by the oja may be heard simultaneously or as a short interlude. At other times antiphonal form between the declamatory utterances and oja is observed. The timbre of mbem music is guttural, imitating the sound of the voice of the spirit manifest.
In line with the observation of Nwoga (Reference Nwoga1984), the textual themes of mbem are fluid and frequently move freely from one theme to another. Thus, a performance may accommodate many themes that do not share any thematic relevance. For instance, in Example 4, Otakaagu changes very easily from praising and greeting Okpokobro, his guest, to advising on being gifted a piece of land by a mentally challenged individual. Part of the skill of ima mbem (performing mbem) lies in the ability to have inventive thought and speech, quick understanding, and the ability to chant and communicate these in beautifully crafted language, on the spur of the moment. Ima mbem can last from five to thirty minutes, depending on the mood of the audience and the performer. The audience is expected to participate by short comments of agreement or disagreement with what the musician is communicating Figure 1.
Spirit manifests competing on ima mbem (mbem performance).
Mbem Musical Structure
Mbem music is in free metric structure, probably in order to accommodate the rhythmic structures of spontaneously spoken words, since it follows strictly the rhythm of words as seen in the musical example Figure 2.
Musical structure of mbem.
Free Metric Structure of Mbem
The melody follows the tonal inflection of the Igbo language, thus giving rise to short intervals of a 2nd or 3rd and leaps of a 4th and 5th (see Figure 2). There is a general use of the diatonic scale, crushed notes, occasional microtone, and undulating melodic structure. Occasionally, there is fleeting polyphony seen in the intermittent overlapping of oja with the speak-singing performance.
Mbem Song Texts
Mbem song texts mirror the Igbo society. Nzewi, Galane, and Nzewi (Reference Nzewi and Nzewi2007) observe that this reflection is so because they provide a deep understanding of ideologies, value systems, and societal norms, as well as inform on desired attitudes and behavioural patterns. The song texts of mbem are imbued with copious use of imagery and figures of speech, many of which are representations and symbolisms of the environment, and the proper way for individuals and society to relate with it. Similarly, Nzewi and Galane (Reference Nzewi and Galane2005) observed that representations, ideas, and imaginations of relationships between humans, non-humans and the metaphysical are enshrined in song texts of African music. Thus, mbem song texts attest to the mutuality of the existence of the material and the immaterial in the environment, which is supported by the earth and illustrated in Example 1 below.
Example 1: Excerpts from Mbem Esesuo Agbala Spirit Manifest
Nnunu na nweghi nne na nna
A young birth that has no father and no mother
Na akubwa akwu n’ogonogo ezi
Builds its nest along a major road
Ajubwa nnunu gini zi ka I na akulu akwu n’ogonogo ezi
When asked why it builds its nest on a major road
O si ka ya nulu ndumodu madu, nulu ndumodu nmuo.
He replies that it is so that he will have access to the counsels of humans as well as those of the spirits.
This song confirms the co-existence of (1) nature, signified by the bird, and supposedly the tree on which it builds its nest, (2) human beings, and (3) spirits, and all of them sharing one environment. These inhabitants of the ecology have a harmonious relationship. Nature benefits from the actions of both spirits and human beings. This arrangement is in contrast to nature as perceived in Western anthropocentrism, where human beings are superior and dictate what happens in the material environment.
The duty of care is eminent in the song as exemplified in a young orphan bird who is cared for by both spirits and humans through the counsels they freely give to it. The song texts portray the right of everyone to exist without being oppressed, no matter how vulnerable and weak they may be. This attitude emanates from the values and norms of the Igbo society, where collective well-being is the principle that stimulates thoughts and actions (Nzewi and Galane Reference Nzewi and Galane2005). The Igbo code of conduct is supervised and maintained by Ala, the mother earth goddess. Notwithstanding the fact that she is caring, nurtures all life and protects them, she ensures strict adherence to values and norms of the land. Ala bestows good fortune on those that keep societal norms, as is seen in the following song text.
Example 2: Excerpts from Ife M Gwalu Ndi Be Anyi
O nwelu ife m gwalu Ndigbo banyi
I told our dear Igbo people
Na mbosi ezigbo mmadu na-eme ncheta omumu ya
That on the day of the celebration of the birth of a good person
Ubochi a na-ako ako, ma nma ine anya
That the environment/atmosphere is always nice and beautiful to behold.
Ala rewards adherence to norms and values with fruitful, productive, peace and harmonious environment. In the same light, she punishes nsoana, (abomination of the land/evil deeds), with destruction as seen in the following mbem song text. The following song text refers to the evil deed of acquiring oke-ite Footnote 6:
Example 3: Excerpts from Ana E tigbue Ya by Odejimjim
Ofo kalilu ife nine ana eme
Justice is greater than everything
Onye bulu oke-ite, o na lue
Anyone who acquires the great pot
Ana etigbue ya
The Land will kill him
Ana etigbunyua ya anya
The land will completely destroy them
Onye gi na ya yiri jee nta
He that accompanied you to go hunting
We tugharizia nyobwe gi enyo bwe
Turned around and looks at you slyly
Na o nwekwalu ka mbo gi si di
That your nail looks weird
Na nmbo gi di ka oyili nmbo eti
That your nail looks like that of an animal
Odejimjim starts the song with the powerful statement that justice is of utmost importance in all the activities of humankind. He proclaims that Ala does not fail to deliver swift justice to her deserving children, and the punishment is commensurate to the crime. The intention and the process of procuring Oke-ite entail direct or indirect sacrifice of life, either that of an animal or a human being, just for an individualistic and selfish purpose of acquiring immediate and stupendous wealth. Not only is this magical object a source of deceit and fraud, but it also destroys life, which is of primary importance and occupies a dominant position in Igbo philosophy. This concept of life does not mean that the Igbo do not use the natural resources of the environment. There are laws governing the harvesting of plants and animals in the ecology that must be adhered to in order to ensure peace, well-being and sustainability. Since Oke-ite is alien to the Igbo culture and is said to have been acquired from neighbouring ethnic groups, its principles are incompatible with sustainability. It is against the spirit of care, reciprocity and justice. For this reason, Odejimjim outrightly condemns it and warns of Ala’s instant destruction of whoever is involved in such a despicable act of debauchery against fellow members of the ecology.
Following the same theme, in the song text, Odejimjim warns that the same fate of destruction awaits the villain who turns around to insinuate and even falsely accuse her/his friend of deception in order to have a good reason to destroy him. This idea is vividly brought to light by the imagery of someone whose friend had accompanied him to go hunting. Suddenly, the former began to insinuate and progressively claimed that the latter’s nails were beginning to look like those of an animal. His intention was to kill his friend and claim that he saw an animal in place of his friend. Such evil acts are condemned by Ala and it is believed that perpetrators will receive retributory justice from her. Ala always demands and ensures reciprocity, inclusivity, and cooperation as enshrined in the idiom of Egbe belu ugo belu nke silu ibe ya ebena, nku kwaa ya.
Example 4: Excerpts from Ekene by Otakaagu
Ego ana etuzi m
I am being gifted with so much money
M wee bata na bee Okpokobro na Isuofia
And I went to Okpokobro’s home in Isuofia
M kpo ya oke oji na iwu (akwu?) madu ajeghi egbu ya n’ike
I called him the great iroko tree that cannot be felled without meticulous preparation
Ya ka ono makudom ego n’ogbo…
That is why he is gifting me so much money on stage….
Ajo ofia kenelu m ya…
Send my greetings to the Evil Forest…
Onye onyeala nyelu ani ka oko ife
Oko ubi a na oku na oku, ala eme foo nya
The text of this song exemplifies the copious use of elements of the environment for representations and symbolism. Oke oji (the great iroko) and Ajo-ofia (Evil Forest) are praise names that Otakaagu’s uses for his patrons. Iroko is the biggest and strongest tree in Igboland and on it is a whole ecosystem with biotic and abiotic lives that depend on it for their survival. Felling an iroko tree is no small feat that requires both material and metaphysical preparation. Otakaagu refers to the power and achievements of his patron and likens him to the iroko tree that needs tremendous preparation to fell. In other words, it will take incredible efforts for his enemies to destroy him. Similarly, in Igboland the Evil Forest is a terrifying place—a place where the Igbo believed evil spirits that belonged to the people whose bodies were disposed of in the forest, made their home. These homeless and roaming spirits are unhappy, vicious, and mischievous because they have not been given decent burials that would enable them a place of abode with the ancestors. The practice was that people who suffered from what was considered terrible diseases (leprosy, smallpox, swellings), had violated customs or committed crimes, and were abandoned and dumped in the evil forest designated for such people. Also, the bodies of those who committed suicide or met their deaths in many mysterious circumstances including accidents were dumped in the evil forest. While Ajo-ofia (Evil Forest) contains so much evil, is not destroyed by it. Thus, the person with the praise name of Ajo-ofia indicates that he is formidable, can withstand all kinds of adversaries without being destroyed by them and so needs to be given accolades and utmost respect. The imagery of Ajo-ofia is simply used to bring home his tough character.
In the same song, Otakaagu, without a break, engages counselling. He uses the imagery of the environment to bring home the importance of his advice. He advocates for swiftness in making use of a good opportunity while it lasts because such good fortunes do not last. He utilises the imagery of a recipient of the gift of a parcel of land by a mentally challenged individual. He counsels to immediately begin farming on that piece of land before the deranged changes his mind, because of his unstable nature. Land is greatly valued in Igboland because of the limited land mass in that region. The recipient of the gift of a piece of land claims it by farming or taking active ownership. Farming is the easiest and a very productive way to do that. The reasoning is that by the time the mentally challenged person changes his unstable mind, the receiver would have acquired the right of ownership of that land. But if he delays in engaging the land, he may lose that present.
Visual Representations of Mbem Performers
The costume used by mbem performers varies depending on what the musicians wish to depict. Nonetheless, they all dress in the various cultural attires of the traditional Igbo people—a pair of trousers with a jumper and a cap, a staff and footwears, as shown in Figures 3 and 4.
Costume of an mbem musician.
One of several costumes of spirit-manifests.
Those that depict as spirit-manifests wear the garb of such an entity, as is seen in Figures 2 and 3.
The background of some music videos of Odejimjim shows the natural environment—a large body of water, forests, degraded environment, for example, gullies (see Figure 5), farmland, and others, as seen in the above figures.
An mbem musician performing inside a gully eroded land.
Thus, he directly and indirectly relates visually with the natural environment.
The video scenes of some mbem musicians, including those of Odejimjim, are infused with the natural environmental images,Footnote 7 even though the theme of the song text may be different. These sceneries may include beautiful landscape, gully, and flood degraded landscapes. The scenes remind the audience of the destruction brought to the society through nsoana, which were caused by the lack of application of reciprocity, cooperation and justice, and are the direct consequences of an anthropocentric attitude.
Igbo Indigenous Environmental Knowledge System (IIEKS) and Environmental Representations
Gosling (Reference Gosling2001: 32) observes that “Considerable closeness exists between humans, the natural world and transcendent Reality.” The very close proximity and constant contact with the environment naturally puts its resources up for utilisation for representations and symbolism in enacting accepted codes of conducts. Symbolism and representations very easily stick to the mind, making it easy to remember concepts. IIEKS understands the importance of proper environmental management and maintenance. In order to help achieve sustainable environment, a means of continuous reminder of the place and expectations of humans in relating with the environment was devised. It culminated in a lot of use of symbolism, representations and imaginations that involve the entities of the ecosystem in communicating Indigenous cultural values and codes of conduct. Music is one of the favourite media for communication, especially as it encompasses other forms of mass media, arts, literature, dance, and visual representation. The musical structure by itself does not represent the environment but heightens the perception of the words and makes them assume lifelikeness. Hence music increases the effect of the performance by driving the message home and making it easy to remember and retain. Music performances can thus be seen as being “at once utilitarian in intention and fulfils entertainment and recreational objectives” (Forchu Reference Forchu2023: 67).
Since all the elements of the environments are infused with life, there is always an intermingling of their spirits with those of humans. This consciousness of everything being imbued with life enabled the principles of reciprocity, respect, and cooperation to have meaning and be able to function. In addition, there are also consequences if cultural tenets are not kept: retributory justice. This understanding is consciously etched into the minds of the Igbo, and individuals endeavour not to break the laws of the land because of Ala’s wrath. Ala, being a loving mother and a nurturer, will need to preserve the well-being of all her offsprings (the whole ecology). This motherly care calls to mind the society-nurturing maternal core values of the AFMT. In order to care and protect the ecology, she will have to maintain balance and justice by giving the erring appropriate punishment so they might atone for their wrongdoing and thus deter others from following in their footsteps.
Mbem musicians hardly sing about current environmental challenges directly. However, the Igbo principles that they espouse are those of the omenala (the way it is done in the land) which translates loosely to the accepted cultural codes of conduct. Mbem music is often imbued with principles of omenala which include reciprocity, inclusivity, respect, and justice. This attitude guides all relationships, with human beings, deities, and animate and inanimate elements of the environment. It ensures order and harmony, not only in the human sphere, but also between human beings and other forces in the material and immaterial environment, and fosters peaceful co-existence.
Decolonising Igbo Indigenous Environmental Knowledge System (IIEKS)
Colonialism attempted to annihilate Indigenous cultures, including that of the Igbo, but it also resulted in the adoption of Western anthropocentrism from the colonial era onwards. Through instruments of colonial administration and the Christian religion, communalism, and co-existence with nature were replaced with individualism and conquest of environment respectively. Ala and other deities almost lost their relevance. At the same time, the IIEKS lost its powers because its principles were disregarded and deities, spirits, and other entities of the ecosystem ceased to receive due cooperation, reciprocity, and respect. Gully erosion, climate change, flooding, and land degradation are all believed to be consequences of neglect by humans in fulfilling their duties towards Ala and the ecology. Inappropriate use of land, including poor farming methods, drainage lines, unbridled exploitation, and harvesting of biotic and abiotic resources without consideration for sustainability, has become the order of the day. Gully erosion, for example, is one of the most dangerous forms of land degradation (Luffman and Nandi Reference Luffman and Nandi2020). These and other unsustainable environmental practices have caused deforestation, devastation of valuable land, and flooding, which are becoming regular features of the Igbo landscape, and their attendant consequences of the displacement of people and numerous humanitarian disasters.
The Precolonial era was marked by unadulterated practices of Igbo religious tenets and concomitant ecological practices associated with minimal land degradation when compared to the colonial and post-colonial periods. These periods when the colonial anthropocentric practices were thrust on the Igbo society, and the Indigenous knowledge and its practices of reciprocity, cooperation and complementarity became eroded, is associated with increased land and societal attritions. Therefore, environmental and societal degradation is believed to be consequences of the failure to observe spiritual and ecological norms and values of the land. Lack of observations of such tenets are considered taboos and desecration of the land, the abode of Ala. It amounts to disrespect of Ala, in engaging with the land—her residence. The powerful deity swiftly delivers justice as concomitant social and environmental degradation. Justice may appear in the form of pestilence,Footnote 8 land degradation, and societal attrition, (if it is perpetrated by the whole community) as witnessed in contemporary Igboland. In the case of individuals, it could be social or economic misfortune, sudden, or violent death or affliction by strange diseases. However, as soon as different ecological lives are appeased by the principle of the IIEKS, the environment will rebound to life again.
Conclusion
This article has ascertained that mbem implicates and explicates the environment in Igboland, southeastern Nigeria through representations and symbols that address principles of IIEKS using ecological entities. Environmental crisis and social attrition, especially land degradation, are caused by neglect of the norms and values of IIEKS. This neglect began during the colonial era as a consequence of subjugation, marginalisation, and prejudice against Indigenous people and their cultures. Unfortunately, it has continued for several decades after colonialism formally ended.
The discussion of mbem musical practices in this article has offered insights into precolonial concepts of the environment in Igboland. It attempted to decolonise the notion of ineffectiveness in IIEKS by showing that its principles enhance environmental sustainability. Currently, these principles of cooperation, reciprocity, respect, and justice are termed social justice, human responsibility, duty of care, amongst other appellations. They are currently globally highlighted as vital ingredients for environmental sustainability (Ufearoh Reference Ufearoh2021). By showing the strengths of environmental sustainability in IIEKS, this paper has also decolonised the concept of anthropocentric ideology, which the people had imbibed as the best environmental practice.
Through its transdisciplinary conversation between spirituality, music, reciprocity, justice and ecology, this article revealed trajectories of decolonial spirituality in Igbo society. Additionally, it has provided insights into how the Igbo create meaning and give expression to land as a spiritual entity in the face of a rapidly degrading environment. It has shown that principles governing IIEKS are scientific, and technology-driven practical environmental management procedures, which had ensured ecological sustainability for centuries. Revisiting, adopting, and adapting relevant Igbo environmental concepts and attitudes in order to discover practices that were discarded as a result of colonialism, and using them in combination with Western-technology-driven tools for an inclusive search for environmental sustainability, is the right way forward.
