Impact Statement
This study demonstrates that the long-term decline in suicide rates in India has reversed, with suicide rates continuing to rise between 2017 and 2023. Using national data from the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB), the study provides an up-to-date analysis of suicide trends in India and highlights that the recent increase has been driven predominantly by men. The findings identify substantial variation across states and Sociodemographic Index (SDI) groupings, with the largest relative increases in suicide rates observed among males in low SDI states, while the largest absolute increases were often observed in high SDI states. The study highlights the need for suicide prevention efforts in India to more explicitly recognise men as a priority population, particularly middle-aged and older men who may experience financial pressures, employment instability, social isolation and harmful gender norms that discourage help-seeking. The findings also reinforce the importance of strengthening gender-responsive approaches within India’s National Suicide Prevention Strategy (NSPS), including interventions that address masculine norms, stigma and barriers to accessing mental health care. Furthermore, the study contributes to ongoing debates regarding suicide surveillance in India. While some of the post-2017 increase may reflect improved reporting following the decriminalisation of suicide attempts, the sustained rise through 2023 suggests that reporting artefacts alone are unlikely to explain the observed trends. Continued strengthening of suicide surveillance systems, alongside improved access to acceptable and non-stigmatising mental health support, will be critical for addressing the growing burden of suicide in India.
Introduction
Suicide is a major public health concern in India, which accounts for approximately one-quarter of all suicides globally (India State-Level Disease Burden Initiative Suicide Collaborators, 2018; Vijayakumar et al., Reference Vijayakumar, Chandra, Kumar, Pathare, Banerjee, Goswami and Dandona2022; Arya, Reference Arya2024). Suicide rates in India are substantially higher than global averages, particularly among women, with female and male rates estimated to be around twice and 1.4 times higher, respectively (India State-Level Disease Burden Initiative Suicide Collaborators, 2018). Suicide is also the leading cause of death among individuals aged 15–39 years in India, with approximately 70% of female and 60% of male suicides occurring in this age group (India State-Level Disease Burden Initiative Suicide Collaborators, 2018).
Like many countries worldwide, suicide rates in India declined from the 1990s onwards (Arya et al., Reference Arya, Page, River, Armstrong and Mayer2018; India State-Level Disease Burden Initiative Suicide Collaborators, 2018). These reductions were largely driven by decreases in female suicide rates, while male suicide rates remained relatively stable over time (Arya et al., Reference Arya, Page, River, Armstrong and Mayer2018; India State-Level Disease Burden Initiative Suicide Collaborators, 2018). More recent evidence indicates a concerning reversal of this trend, with suicide rates increasing since 2017, primarily driven by rising male suicide rates (Arya et al., Reference Arya, Page, Spittal, Dandona, Vijayakumar, Munasinghe, John, Gunnell, Pirkis and Armstrong2022). Male suicide rates increased steadily between 2017 and 2020, with the sharpest rise observed in 2020, the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic (Arya et al., Reference Arya, Page, Spittal, Dandona, Vijayakumar, Munasinghe, John, Gunnell, Pirkis and Armstrong2022). While estimates suggest that suicide rates among females in India are exceptionally high compared with many other countries, particularly in younger age groups, emerging national data indicate that recent increases are now being driven predominantly by men, underscoring the importance of understanding how these global gender patterns manifest in the Indian context.
In this study, we aimed to examine national and state-level trends in suicide rates in India between 2013 and 2023, with particular attention to changes occurring after 2017, when prior evidence suggested a reversal in long-term declining trends. Specifically, we sought to (1) assess whether the post-2017 increase in suicide rates has persisted through 2023; (2) examine sex-specific patterns in these trends; (3) explore variation across states grouped by Sociodemographic Index (SDI); and (4) describe recent age-specific patterns at the national level. Building on previous work that documented rising suicide rates in India up to 2020, including during the first year of the COVID‑19 pandemic (Arya et al., Reference Arya, Page, Spittal, Dandona, Vijayakumar, Munasinghe, John, Gunnell, Pirkis and Armstrong2022), this study extends surveillance through 2023 to determine whether the observed post‑2017 increase has persisted. By incorporating sex‑specific, SDI‑grouped and age‑specific analyses, and by examining both relative (RRs) and absolute (RDs) changes in suicide rates, we clarify which populations and regions are driving the growing burden.
Methods
Data
The National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) compiles and publishes annual suicide statistics for each state and union territory in India based on police-recorded data (National Crime Records Bureau, 2024a). Suicide data for 2013–2023, disaggregated by sex, were obtained from the NCRB website. Age-specific suicide counts were available only at the national level, with age-group classifications differing between 2013–2017 and 2019–2023 and no age-disaggregated data reported for 2018. To ensure consistency in age-group definitions, age-specific suicide rates were therefore reported at the national level for 2019–2023 only.
Administrative boundary changes were accounted for to maintain geographic comparability over time. The state of Andhra Pradesh was split in 2014 into Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, while the former state of Jammu and Kashmir was reorganised in 2019 into the union territories of Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh. For analytical consistency, suicide counts for Andhra Pradesh and Telangana were combined for 2013–2023, and those for Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh were combined for 2020–2023. Corresponding population denominators for each state and union territory were obtained from Ministry of Health and Family Welfare estimates (National Health Profile, 2020) for the period 2013–2023.
Analysis
Crude suicide rates stratified by sex and state were calculated for the period 2013–2023. In addition, crude suicide rates stratified by sex and five age groups (0–17 years, 18–29 years, 30–44 years, 45–59 years and ≥60 years) were estimated at the national level for 2019–2023. Crude suicide rates were also calculated for three groups of Indian states classified according to their SDI: low SDI, middle SDI and high SDI (Supplementary Appendix S1). States in the low SDI category represent those with comparatively lower levels of development, characterised by lower per capita income and literacy and higher fertility rates (GBD 2017 DALYs and HALE Collaborators, 2018; India State-Level Disease Burden Initiative Air Pollution Collaborators, 2019).
Consistent with previous work (Arya et al., Reference Arya, Page, Spittal, Dandona, Vijayakumar, Munasinghe, John, Gunnell, Pirkis and Armstrong2022), rate ratios (RRs) of crude suicide rates, stratified by sex and state, were calculated for 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021, 2022 and 2023 using 2017 as the reference point, the year prior to the identified shift in suicide trends (Arya et al., Reference Arya, Page, Spittal, Dandona, Vijayakumar, Munasinghe, John, Gunnell, Pirkis and Armstrong2022). These RRs were used to assess whether subsequent changes in suicide rates were greater or smaller relative to earlier increases. Additional RRs were estimated for the three SDI-based state groupings. All RRs were presented with 95% uncertainty intervals (UIs) derived from Monte Carlo simulations conducted in Ersatz software (Barendregt, Reference Barendregt2009). The ErRelativeRisk function was applied, assuming a normal distribution for ln(RR) with a standard deviation equal to SE[ln(RR)], and 1,000 iterations were performed to ensure stability of estimates.
To complement relative comparisons based on RRs, absolute changes in suicide rates were also examined by calculating rate differences (RDs) for 2018–2023 using 2017 as the reference year. RDs were defined as the difference between the crude suicide rate in each subsequent year and the corresponding crude suicide rate in 2017. Additional RDs were calculated for the three SDI-based state groupings. Ninety-five percent confidence intervals (CIs) for the RDs were calculated assuming independent Poisson-distributed suicide counts. Analyses were undertaken using MS Excel, STATA 19 and Ersatz 1.35 (Mitchell, Reference Mitchell2008; Barendregt, Reference Barendregt2009).
Results
Overall, suicide rates in India increased by approximately 14%, rising from 10.84 to 12.36 per 100,000 population between 2013 and 2023. This increase was driven by a ~24% rise in male suicide rates over the same period (from 14.16 to 17.53 per 100,000 population) (Figure 1; Supplementary Appendices S2–S4). In contrast, female suicide rates decreased by ~6%, declining from 7.33 to 6.91 per 100,000 population between 2013 and 2023. Patterns were broadly similar across low, middle and high SDI state groups, except among females in low SDI states, where suicide rates increased by ~8% (from 4.54 to 4.92 per 100,000 population) during this period (Figure 1; Supplementary Appendix S5). Suicide rates were consistently higher in high SDI states and lower in low SDI states (Figure 1; Supplementary Appendix S5). States with the largest increases in suicide rates between 2013 and 2023 included the high SDI states of Uttarakhand (from 3.52 to 8.07 per 100,000 population) and Punjab (from 3.43 to 7.47 per 100,000 population) and the low SDI state of Uttar Pradesh (from 2.56 to 3.88 per 100,000 population) (Supplementary Appendix S2).
Suicide rates (crude): India and by sociodemographic index (SDI) state categories (2013–2023).
Figure 1. Long description
The figure consists of four panels with a shared Y-axis labeled Rate per 100,000 population ranging from 0 to 30 and a shared X-axis showing years from 2013 to 2023. Each panel contains three lines: a red line with square markers for Male, a black line with circle markers for Total, and a green line with triangle markers for Female.
* Panel 1 (India): The Male rate starts at approximately 14, dips slightly, then rises to 17.5 by 2023. The Total rate fluctuates around 10 to 12.5. The Female rate remains relatively stable between 6 and 7.
* Panel 2 (Low S D I states): This panel shows the lowest overall rates. The Male rate increases from 7.5 to nearly 10. The Total rate rises from 6 to 7.5. The Female rate stays between 4 and 5.
* Panel 3 (Middle S D I states): The Male rate starts at 18.5, dips in 2017, and rises to 22. The Total rate follows a similar pattern between 14 and 15.5. The Female rate shows a slight downward trend from 10 to 8.5.
* Panel 4 (High S D I states): This panel shows the highest rates and steepest increases. The Male rate starts at 22.5 and climbs sharply after 2019 to reach 29. The Total rate increases from 16 to 19.5. The Female rate remains the most stable, fluctuating slightly around 9.
Across all panels, Male rates are consistently higher than Female rates, and the gap between genders is most pronounced in the High S D I states.
Male suicide rates increased steadily following 2017, with the highest increase observed in 2023 (RR = 1.32, 95% UI 1.30–1.33) (Table 1; Supplementary Appendices S6–S7). Female suicide rates showed a more variable pattern after 2017, with the highest increase observed in 2022 (RR = 1.11, 95% UI 1.10–1.13) (Table 1; Supplementary Appendices S6–S7). Among males, increases were evident across all SDI state groups, with the largest relative rise in 2023 occurring in low SDI states (RR = 1.43, 95% UI 1.41–1.45). Among females, suicide rates generally increased in low and high SDI state groups, while remaining relatively stable in middle SDI states. The largest increase among females was observed in 2022 in low SDI states (RR = 1.28, 95% UI 1.25–1.31) (Table 1; Supplementary Appendices S6–S7).
Suicide rate ratios (RRs) for 2018 versus 2017, 2019 versus 2017, 2020 versus 2017, 2021 versus 2017, 2022 versus 2017 and 2023 versus 2017 with 95% UI by sex, and SDI state groups
Table 1. Long description
The data is presented in four tables representing India as a whole, Low S D I states, Middle S D I states, and High S D I states. Each table compares the Rate Ratio R R with a 95 percent Uncertainty Interval U I for the years 2018 through 2023 against the 2017 baseline.
* Table 1: India Total.
- Total: R R increases from 1.02 in 2018 to 1.24 in 2023.
- Male: R R increases from 1.02 in 2018 to 1.32 in 2023.
- Female: R R fluctuates, starting at 1.02 in 2018, dipping to 0.99 in 2019, and ending at 1.07 in 2023.
* Table 2: Low S D I states.
- Total: R R increases from 1.04 in 2018 to 1.34 in 2023.
- Male: R R increases from 1.05 in 2018 to 1.43 in 2023.
- Female: R R increases from 1.02 in 2018 to 1.18 in 2023.
* Table 3: Middle S D I states.
- Total: R R increases from 1.03 in 2018 to 1.15 in 2023.
- Male: R R increases from 1.03 in 2018 to 1.23 in 2023.
- Female: R R starts at 1.03 in 2018 and decreases to 0.98 in 2023.
* Table 4: High S D I states.
- Total: R R starts at 1.00 in 2018 and increases to 1.27 in 2023.
- Male: R R starts at 0.99 in 2018 and increases to 1.34 in 2023.
- Female: R R starts at 1.02 in 2018 and ends at 1.08 in 2023.
When examined on the absolute scale, increases in suicide rates following 2017 were often greater in high SDI states than in low SDI states (Table 2). Among males, the largest absolute increase in suicide rates was observed in high SDI states in 2023 (RD = 7.47, 95% CI 7.12–7.82), compared with 2.96 (95% CI 2.82–3.10) in low SDI states and 4.14 (95% CI 3.86–4.42) in middle SDI states. Among females, the largest absolute increase was observed in low SDI states in 2022 (RD = 1.20, 95% CI 1.10–1.31), whereas female suicide rates in middle SDI states remained relatively stable or declined slightly over time. At the national level, absolute increases in suicide rates were also substantially greater among males than females, with the largest increase observed in 2023 among males (RD = 4.26, 95% CI 4.13–4.39) compared with 2022 among females (RD = 0.76, 95% CI 0.67–0.85).
Suicide rate differences (RDs) for 2018 minus 2017, 2019 minus 2017, 2020 minus 2017, 2021 minus 2017, 2022 minus 2017 and 2023 minus 2017 with 95% CI by sex, and SDI state groups
Table 2. Long description
The data is presented in four tables representing India as a whole, Low S D I states, Middle S D I states, and High S D I states. Each table displays the Rate Difference (R D) and 95% C I for six comparison periods: 2018 minus 2017, 2019 minus 2017, 2020 minus 2017, 2021 minus 2017, 2022 minus 2017, and 2023 minus 2017.
* India Total: R D values increase from 0.24 in 2018 to a peak of 2.48 in 2022, slightly decreasing to 2.41 in 2023. Males show a sharp increase from 0.32 to 4.26, while females show a smaller increase from 0.17 to 0.47, with a slight dip in 2019.
* Low S D I States: Total R D increases from 0.24 to 1.89. Males increase from 0.38 to 2.96. Females increase from 0.10 to 0.76.
* Middle S D I States: Total R D increases from 0.41 to 2.05. Males show a significant rise from 0.53 to 4.14. Females show fluctuating values, starting at 0.29 in 2018 and ending at negative 0.15 in 2023.
* High S D I States: Total R D increases from 0.08 to 4.18. Males show the most dramatic increase from negative 0.02 in 2018 to 7.47 in 2023. Females increase from 0.19 to 0.72.
Between 2019 and 2023, suicide rates were consistently higher among males than females across all age groups, except among those aged 0–17 years (Figure 2; Supplementary Appendix S8). Among males, rates were highest in middle-aged groups, whereas among females, the highest rates were observed among those aged 18–29 years (Figure 2; Supplementary Appendix S8). Male suicide rates increased across all age groups between 2019 and 2023, with the largest increases observed among individuals aged 30–44 years (from 22.56 to 27.90 per 100,000 population; ~24% increase), those aged 45–59 years (from 20.01 to 24.93 per 100,000 population; ~25% increase) and those aged 60 years and above (from 12.63 to 17.73 per 100,000 population; ~40% increase). Female suicide rates also increased across most age groups, except among those aged 18–29 years, where rates remained relatively stable (from 12.57 to 12.21 per 100,000 population; ~3% decrease). As with males, the largest increases among females were observed in the 45–59 year age group (from 4.86 to 6.07 per 100,000 population; ~25% increase) and among those aged 60 years and above (from 3.91 to 5.10 per 100,000 population; ~30% increase) (Figure 2; Supplementary Appendix S8).
Suicide rates (crude) by sex and age group: India (2019–2023).
Figure 2. Long description
The graph consists of two side-by-side panels. The Y-axis for both panels represents the Rate per 100,000 population, ranging from 0 to 35 in increments of 5. The X-axis represents the years 2019, 2020, 2021, 2022, and 2023. A legend at the bottom identifies five age groups: 0–17 (light blue), 18–29 (pink), 30–44 (teal), 45–59 (yellow), and 60+ (purple).
* Left Panel (Males): All age groups except 0–17 show a significant upward trend. The 30–44 group has the highest rate, rising from approximately 22.5 in 2019 to nearly 28 in 2023. The 45–59 and 18–29 groups follow closely, both ending near 25. The 60+ group increases from 12.5 to about 17.5. The 0–17 group remains stable and low, near 2.
* Right Panel (Females): Rates are significantly lower than males across all categories. The 18–29 group has the highest rate, fluctuating between 12 and 14. The 30–44 group remains steady around 8. The 45–59 and 60+ groups are lower, between 4 and 6. The 0–17 group is the lowest, remaining near 3 throughout the period.
Discussion
We found that suicide rates in India increased between 2013 and 2023, reversing earlier declines and signalling a sustained shift in the epidemiology of suicide. Over this period, rising male suicide rates, particularly after 2017, were the primary driver of the overall increase, whereas female suicide rates remained comparatively stable. These patterns were broadly consistent across low, middle and high SDI state groups, and age‑specific analyses indicated that the steepest recent increases occurred among middle‑aged and older adults of both sexes.
Previous studies have reported increases in suicide rates in India between 2017 and 2020 (Arya et al., Reference Arya, Page, Spittal, Dandona, Vijayakumar, Munasinghe, John, Gunnell, Pirkis and Armstrong2022; Ganguli et al., Reference Ganguli, Singh and Das2025). The present study extends this evidence, demonstrating that suicide rates have continued to rise through to 2023. Consistent with these findings, the recently released NCRB report indicates that the national suicide rate in 2024 was similar to that observed in 2023 (NCRB, 2024b), suggesting that the post-2017 increase has persisted beyond the period examined in this study. This sustained increase, driven primarily by rising male suicide rates, suggests a concerning shift in the epidemiology of suicide in India. Prior to this recent upturn, male suicide rates had remained relatively stable for more than two decades (Arya et al., Reference Arya, Page, River, Armstrong and Mayer2018; India State-Level Disease Burden Initiative Suicide Collaborators, 2018).
The rise in suicide rates may partly reflect improvements in suicide reporting in India following the decriminalisation of suicide attempts. The Mental Healthcare Act (2017) effectively restricted the application of Section 309 of the Indian Penal Code, which previously criminalised suicide attempts, and may have reduced apprehension among families and authorities about reporting suicides (Behere et al., Reference Behere, Sathyanarayana Rao and Mulmule2015). Such changes could plausibly have improved reporting of suicides to police authorities, particularly in higher SDI states where administrative systems may be more responsive to legal changes. However, decriminalisation does not necessarily remove other legal and social complexities surrounding suicide reporting, particularly among women. For example, any suspected unnatural death of a married woman within the first seven years of marriage requires a mandatory magistrate inquest (Kethineni and Srinivasan, Reference Kethineni and Srinivasan2009). Investigations into female suicides may also carry additional cultural and social repercussions, including the potential disclosure of physical or sexual abuse or romantic relationships considered socially unacceptable, which remain highly stigmatised in many parts of India (Grover, Reference Grover2017). These socio-legal and reporting factors may, at least in part, explain the observed post-2017 increase in reported male suicide rates alongside relatively stable female rates.
However, irrespective of potential improvements in suicide reporting, the observed increases may also reflect a genuine rise in suicides in India. This is because despite the decriminalisation of attempted suicide, evidence indicates that individuals who attempt suicide may continue to experience police harassment and stigma, implying limited change “on the ground” in how cases are handled and reported (Pathare et al., Reference Pathare, Fernandes, Hamid and Lyons2023). Furthermore, there is also evidence that underreporting of suicides in India may have been exacerbated during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic (Kallakuri and Maulik, Reference Kallakuri and Maulik2020). However, suicide rates increased in 2020 despite these concerns, suggesting that reporting artefacts alone are unlikely to account for the observed rise.
Evidence from alternative data sources provides a more complex picture of recent suicide trends in India. The Global Burden of Disease (GBD) Study integrates multiple data sources, including Sample Registration System (SRS) verbal autopsy data and individual-level community surveillance studies, and applies ensemble modelling approaches to estimate underlying suicide counts (India State-Level Disease Burden Initiative Suicide Collaborators, 2018). Recent GBD estimates suggest that suicide rates among both sexes in India declined in 2019 and 2021 compared with 2016 estimates (India State-Level Disease Burden Initiative Suicide Collaborators, 2018; GBD 2021 Suicide Collaborators, 2025), in contrast to the post-2017 increase in police-recorded suicides observed in the NCRB data (Supplementary Appendix S9). The observed increase in NCRB-recorded suicides may reflect a genuine rise in suicide incidence, improvements in suicide reporting following the decriminalisation of attempted suicide or, most plausibly, a combination of both. Nonetheless, the consistent upward trend in NCRB-recorded suicides remains an important signal for policy.
Beyond differences between data sources, the patterns observed in this study point to substantive changes in who is most affected by suicide in India. Low SDI states experienced the largest relative increases in suicide rates after 2017 among both males and females. Among males, however, these increases were closely followed by rising rates in high and middle SDI states. On the absolute scale, increases were often greater in high SDI states, particularly among males, reflecting their higher baseline suicide rates. Together, these findings suggest that although suicide rates have risen fastest in relative terms in low SDI states, the absolute increase in suicide burden has been greatest in high SDI states, which continue to carry the highest burden of suicide in India. This underscores the importance of considering both relative and absolute measures when interpreting changes in suicide patterns across regions. Among females, post-2017 increases were less pronounced and more variable across SDI state groups, mirroring the overall national pattern of relatively stable suicide rates.
Beyond geographic variation, important demographic patterns were also evident. Higher suicide rates among middle-aged males and younger females have been previously documented in India (Arya et al., Reference Arya, Page, River, Armstrong and Mayer2018; India State-Level Disease Burden Initiative Suicide Collaborators, 2018; Arya et al., Reference Arya, Armstrong, Tapp, Onie, Bandara, Kumar, Spittal, Page, Vijayakumar, Pirkis and Dandona2025). Potential explanations for these age- and sex-specific patterns include increasing familial and financial responsibilities among middle-aged men, as well as the influence of rigid patriarchal norms that may disproportionately affect younger women in India (Mayer, Reference Mayer2011; Petroni et al., Reference Petroni, Patel and Patton2015). The increase in suicide rates among middle-aged men may also reflect India’s ongoing demographic transition. Declining fertility, increasing life expectancy, urbanisation and changing family structures have altered traditional family and economic roles (Breton, Reference Breton2019; Mishra, Reference Mishra2020; Chakravorty et al., Reference Chakravorty, Goli and James2021; Deb and Okulicz-Kozaryn, Reference Deb and Okulicz-Kozaryn2023; Sample Registration System Statistical Report 2024, 2026). Despite these changes, men continue to be expected to fulfil primary provider roles within many Indian households (Luke et al., Reference Luke, Xu and Thampi2014; Sahu, Reference Sahu2024). These demographic changes have occurred alongside increasing labour market informalisation, employment insecurity and widening labour market inequalities, which may have compounded the economic pressures experienced by many middle-aged men, potentially contributing to heightened psychological distress (Motiram and Naraparaju, Reference Motiram and Naraparaju2018; Srivastava, Reference Srivastava2019; Hammer et al., Reference Hammer, Keles and Olsen2022). Although suicide rates increased across most age groups in both sexes between 2019 and 2023, the largest rises were observed among middle-aged adults and, in particular, among those aged 60 years and above. The increase in suicide rates among older adults is especially concerning given projections that individuals aged 60 years and above will account for approximately 15% of India’s population by 2036 (Census of India 2011, 2020). The underlying drivers of these increases, particularly among older adults, remain unclear and warrant further investigation. Future research could consider the potential role of changing social and family structures in influencing suicide and suicidal behaviour among older adults, including shifts from traditional decision-making roles to more dependent or supportive roles in later life, increased social isolation and economic insecurity associated with the rise of nuclear families, and migration-related separation from family members (Bloom et al., Reference Bloom, Mahal, Rosenberg and Sevilla2010; Gray et al., Reference Gray, Longkumer, Panda and Rangaswamy2019; Mehra et al., Reference Mehra, Agarwal, Bashar, Avasthi, Chakravarty and Grover2024).
The sustained increase in male suicide rates has important implications for suicide prevention policy and practice in India. The National Suicide Prevention Strategy identifies several high-risk groups, including young and middle-aged adults, economically vulnerable populations (e.g., farmers) and individuals experiencing family, social and financial stressors (National Suicide Prevention Strategy, 2022). These risk factors affect both men and women; however, their distribution and impact may differ by gender. In the Indian context, men are more likely to be exposed to certain stressors, particularly those related to financial responsibility, employment and socially prescribed provider roles (Mayer, Reference Mayer2011). At the same time, although India’s patriarchal social structure disproportionately disadvantages women through lower autonomy, reduced control over resources, early marriage and gender-based violence (Gopalakrishnan et al., Reference Gopalakrishnan, El Ayadi and Diamond-Smith2024), it may also adversely affect men by reinforcing norms around emotional suppression, self-reliance and reluctance to seek help, which can contribute to psychological distress, substance use and other maladaptive coping responses (Dochania and Dochania, Reference Dochania and Dochania2025). Higher suicide rates among men have been attributed to a combination of reduced help-seeking, rigid coping styles, stronger identification with independence and control, greater psychological impact of role loss, greater use of more lethal methods and cultural norms that frame suicide as an acceptable or masculine response to perceived loss of status or autonomy (McKay et al., Reference McKay, Milner and Maple2014; Canetto, Reference Canetto2017). Taken together, this highlights the need for more gender-responsive suicide prevention strategies in India that address the distinct pathways to suicide among both men and women. In particular, the sustained increase in male suicide rates suggests that men, especially middle-aged and older men, may benefit from greater recognition as a priority population within prevention efforts. This could involve strengthening interventions that address gendered norms and employment instability, as well as improving access to acceptable and non-stigmatising mental health support in settings more frequently accessed by men, such as primary care and workplaces.
This study has some limitations. First, suicide counts reported by the NCRB are likely to underestimate the true burden of suicide, potentially due to stigma, misclassification and resource constraints within reporting systems (Arya et al., Reference Arya, Page, Armstrong, Kumar and Dandona2021). Second, NCRB data are available only as aggregate counts at the state level, limiting the ability to draw individual-level inferences; for example, it is not possible to determine whether higher suicide rates in high SDI states are driven by socioeconomically advantaged or disadvantaged populations. Third, age-specific data were not available at the state level, which restricted the examination of regional variations in age-specific suicide rates.
In conclusion, suicide rates in India increased between 2013 and 2023, largely driven by rising male suicide rates. Following 2017, male suicide rates increased consistently, with the largest rise observed in 2023 compared with preceding years. Part of this increase may reflect improved reporting following the decriminalisation of suicide in 2017, particularly among males, whereas persistent cultural and legal complexities surrounding female deaths may have limited comparable improvements in female reporting. However, decriminalisation alone is unlikely to fully explain the recent rise in male suicide rates. The effects of such policy changes are likely to occur gradually, and emerging evidence suggests limited “on the ground” changes in stigma and police practices affecting individuals with suicidal behaviour. Continued monitoring of suicide trends will be important to better understand the drivers of the sustained post-2017 increase in male suicide rates in India and to inform effective suicide prevention strategies. In particular, the findings highlight the need for suicide prevention efforts in India to more explicitly recognise and address the growing burden of suicide among men.
Open peer review
To view the open peer review materials for this article, please visit http://doi.org/10.1017/gmh.2026.10286.
Supplementary material
The supplementary material for this article can be found at http://doi.org/10.1017/gmh.2026.10286.
Data availability statement
The data used in this study are publicly available free of cost from the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) website.
Author contribution
VA led the data curation, conceptualisation, investigation, formal analysis, visualisation, data interpretation, writing and revising. AP supported data analysis and revising. GA supervised, supported conceptualisation, data analysis, and revising. SP, SK, SSR, LV, CL and JP supported revising.
Ethics and approvals
No Institutional ethics approval was required since the study was based on de-identified, secondary-level data.
Funding statement
No funding was sought or received for this research.
Competing interest
On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.
Open access
Comments
207 Bouverie St, Carlton VIC 3053
Australia
Centre for Mental Health and Community Wellbeing, Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, University of Melbourne
07 May 2026
Prof. Judy Bass & Prof. Dixon Chibanda
Cambridge Prisms: Global Mental Health
Dear Prof. Bass & Prof. Chibanda
RE: Changing trends in suicide in India, 2013-2023: Rising suicide rates among men
We are submitting our original research paper for publication in Cambridge Prisms: Global Mental Health. This paper has not been previously published and is not currently under consideration for publication elsewhere.
Suicide is a major public health concern in India, which accounts for a substantial share of global suicides. Although Long-term declines in suicide rates appear to have reversed after 2017, it is unclear whether this increase has persisted and how it varies by sex, age, and development level. Using national data from the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB), we conducted an up-to-date analysis of suicide trends in India between 2013 and 2023.
We found that suicide rates in India increased between 2013 and 2023, reversing earlier declines and signalling a sustained shift in the epidemiology of suicide. Rising male suicide rates, particularly after 2017, were the primary driver of this increase, whereas female suicide rates remained comparatively stable. We highlight the implications of these findings for suicide prevention policy in India, including the need for the National Suicide Prevention Strategy (NSPS) to more explicitly recognise and address the growing burden of suicide among men.
Given the focus of Cambridge Prisms: Global Mental Health, we believe that our manuscript is suited to the readership of your journal.
Yours sincerely
Vikas Arya, PhD
Research Fellow in Mental Health
Centre for Mental Health and Community Wellbeing, Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, The University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010 Australia
E: arya.v@unimelb.edu.au