This impressive two-volume publication of the University of Munich excavations at the Severan vexillation fort of Gheriat el-Garbia in Libya complements the previous report on the history of research and on-site surveys (Mackensen Reference Mackensen2021).
Volume 1 comprises the description of the fort with its well-preserved towers and gates, which makes Gheriat el-Garbia a primary source for the reconstruction of military architecture also in the Roman west (cf. Mackensen Reference Mackensen, Flügel and Obmann2013). Archaeologically, three periods of the fort can be distinguished: period I (AD 199/201, according to a building inscription found on site, to AD 275/280); period II (ca. AD 390/400 to ca. 430/460); and period III (ca. AD 450/460 to ca. 540/550), followed by the establishment of a Berber settlement (last third of the seventeenth/early eighteenth to mid-twentieth century) and an Italian military post (1920–25 to 1942).
The main gate (porta praetoria) with a width of 26 m is flanked by two pentagonal towers, still standing up to a height of 5.5 and 10 m respectively. The gate towers, flanking the open crenellated parapet walk above the carriage way, can reliably be reconstructed with three storeys and a total height of 12.5 m. It is important to acknowledge Mackensen’s observation that the aforementioned parapet walk was not accessible from the two towers. This is especially important for the reconstruction of Roman fort gates in the north-western provinces, which are often reconstructed with a direct access from the towers onto the parapet walk of the walls, but without any sound basis. Concerning the interior of the towers, it must be emphasized that the north tower did not have a floor for the first storey, but a wooden scaffolding granting inside access to the three storeys which themselves can be reconstructed with a height of between 4.7 and 5 m.
The ground plan of the porta praetoria with its characteristic pentagonal towers can be deduced from the portae laterales at the legionary fortress of Lambaesis in Numidia. The huge dimensions of the porta praetoria as a ‘signature building’ designed to impress and to be seen from far away by approaching friends and foes, as well as the keystone of the central arch of the carriageway with its inscription Prov(incia) / Afr(ica) / ill(ustris) in a laurel wreath, bear witness to the Severan expansionist policy whilst strengthening the frontiers of the Roman Empire (cf. additionally Flügel et al. Reference Flügel, Meyr and Eingartner2017). The intermediate towers, two of which (towers 2 and 4) are still standing up to a height of 7.75 m, in comparison with the main gate towers were lower, rising originally to a height of ca. 9.4 m.
Of particular interest is Mackensen’s analysis of Severan military architecture on the limes Tripolitanus (203–29). The architects of the legio III Augusta pia vindex did not use an architectural blueprint following the model of the legionary fortress of Lambaesis, but adapted ground plans and building techniques according to the local topography. A common feature, however, are the towers with skewed inner corners, which do follow the ‘Lambaesis design’.
The interior space of the Gheriat el-Garbia fort, measuring 128 × 176 m, was divided into Punic cubiti and did not follow the Roman pes monetalis. The basic spatial module comprised 30 × 30 cubiti. Little is known of the interior of the fort, due to the presence of a now-abandoned, modern Berber settlement overlying the Roman remains. Of the principia, the rear sequence of rooms with partly intact opus signinum floors survives. Two rooms, the aedes principiorum as well as an adjacent officium could be identified. The existence of a cellar underneath the aedes principiorum almost certainly can be excluded. Mackensen’s ground plan reconstruction is mainly based on the comparison of the Gheriat el-Garbia remains with the better-preserved principia of Gholaia/Bu Njem. In Late Antiquity (period II: AD 360/380–430/460) the rear sequence of the rooms in the principia was significantly reduced to the former aedes principiorum and the two flanking rooms. In front of the period II principia (building SR A) a basilica with two central pillars and a peristyle court could be identified. The smaller, Late Antique principia building bears witness to the reduced strength of troops at Gheriat el-Garbia in the early fifth century AD.
An often neglected aspect in publications on Roman forts in general is the water management and supply. Mackensen’s book adds some important aspects to this question (285–98). Water supply at Gheriat was secured by the spring in the nearby oasis, delivering water over the whole year, as well as by a double cistern outside the fort. Calculating a strength of 600 to 800 soldiers for the Severan fort of Gheriat el-Garbia and 2 to 4 litres of water per soldier each day, a total of 440,000 to 1,200,000 litres per year was needed only for the people living in the fort. Above a quarter of this amount could be stored in the aforementioned double cistern, which may have reached its full storing capacity of 240,000 to 390,000 litres only immediately after the winter precipitations. The vital necessity of this cistern is proved by an underground passage running underneath the perimeter wall and allowing access to the cistern from inside the fort.
Volume 2 of the book contains various contributions, on inscriptions as well as detailed catalogues of the stratified ceramics from various periods and specialist studies on faunal, wooden and macrobotanical remains. It also includes remarks on the round observation tower (burgus) with its spiral staircase above the Wadi Tula and the buildings on the so-called ‘temple plateau’. This review can only address certain aspects of this second volume, which is as fascinating to read as the first one.
Of particular interest is a Late Antique inscription dated between AD 390 and 450 (319–26). It mentions restoration works in numerous places (multa loca) along a stretch of 107 miles along the limes Tentheitanum, made necessary due to floods and swamps (paludes) caused by heavy torrential rain (ab impetu aquarum). A further inscription on a base for a statue of Julia Mamaea, set up by various soldiers of the vexillatio at Gheriat el-Garbia and commanded by the centurio Aelius Crescentinus as praepositus vexillationis, can probably be dated to the years AD 222/223 (327–39). The ceramic studies are not limited only to dating issues and typological/chronological discussions, but encompass chapters on Late Antique Tripolitanian red slip ware and lamps as well as mid-Roman and Late Antique amphorae. Sabine Ziegler presents nine ostraka (387–99) from fifth-century contexts written in ‘South Punic’ (a regional version of the Punic language), one of them referring to the supply of oxen and mentioning workmen.
The six sanctuaries on the so-called ‘temple-plateau’ outside the fort are presented by Sebastian Schmid and the late Johannes Eingartner (475–518). The largest building GG2 consists of an open courtyard with a surrounding inner portico and a continuous podium running along the inner perimeter walls of the courtyard, orientated towards an apsidal room with a central podium for statues. The architectural form with inner podium can be found in various temple buildings in Libya and elsewhere, for example at Gholaia. It is assumed that these podia were used by reclining worshippers. A similar construction with benches for worshippers can be found in the adjacent building GG4, and Johannes Eingartner convincingly argues that this special architectural feature was connected to the cult of local gods.
One of the final chapters, the archaeological-historical synthesis of the archaeological documentation and the specialist studies (565–607), is probably one of the most interesting sections of this book. Michael Mackensen offers a complete outline of the history of Gheriat el-Garbia starting in AD 196/197–201 under the legate Quintus Anicius Faustus, responsible for securing the 1,500 km-long military frontier from the west of Numidia to eastern Tripolitania. The purpose of the construction of Gheriat was to secure the main route into the Fazzan and is to be seen in context with the founding of forts at Gholaia/Bu Njem and Cidamus/Ghadames. Gheriat was the central pillar of the Roman surveillance and defence strategy on the southern border of Africa Proconsularis. The fort itself, according to the surviving building inscription, was planned and built by a vexillatio with an estimated strength of 600 to 800 legionaries. Following the disbanding of the legio III Augusta in AD 238, a new organizational structure of the limes Tripolitanus, now divided into various military sub-commands, was introduced. After the restoration of the legio III Augusta in AD 253 there are no traces of legionary occupation of the site. The forts at Gheriat and Gholaia were abandoned by the Roman army between AD 260 and 275/280. Gheriat was only reoccupied about 100 years later by a limitani unit around AD 360/380 and until 430/460. This period sees extensive restoration works on the Severan fortifications, especially through the construction of retaining walls on the towers as well as the reduction of the principia building, the blocking of the central throughfare of the porta praetoria, and the reduction of carriageways at the right gate. Due to our poor knowledge of the interior structures of the period II fort, the strength of the garrison can only be estimated as somewhere between 200 and 400 men. It can be hypothesized that the name of the fort was castra Madensia, mentioned in the Notitia Dignitatum Occidentis, 31.30, provided that the Libyan placename Myd(- - -) on the Julia Mamaea base from Gheriat can be equated with Mad(ensia). The end of Gheriat’s military history may hypothetically be related to the Vandal expansion with the capture of the western Tripolitanian coastal area. The most recent finds date to the first half and mid-sixth century and are testimony of Libyan settlement activities near the porta praetoria.
This fascinating book can only be considered as a prime example of German scholarship and is highly recommended for everyone interested in Roman military architecture or the history of the southern Tripolitanian border region in general. Whereas the English archaeometric contributions are more accessible for a non-German-speaking audience, a certain knowledge of German is required to understand the sometimes complex contents. However, it must be emphasized that this book is a ‘good read’ – not only from an archaeological point of view, but also through its use of sophisticated German.
