Dedicated studies of Roman Cyprus are few and far between, and thus H.'s brief but focused monograph is a most welcome addition. The book's subtitle hints at the binding theme, and insightful chapters on administration, citizenship and civic identity, especially from the perspective of Cypriots and their complex relationship with the Roman Empire, highlight the polyvalent tensions that existed on the island. Its elite denizens oscillated between the preservation of a local identity, both at the level of their individual poleis and the island as a whole, and the desire to be connected to the larger political, economic and cultural world of the imperial Mediterranean. Cyprus was renowned for its natural resources and one of the most important religious sanctuaries, dedicated to Aphrodite at Palaipaphos, and the coveted island exchanged hands periodically. In the late Republic Roman hegemony brought new external influences and priorities, some at odds with those already present under Ptolemaic rule. However, Cyprus was relatively unimportant for the Empire, and very few prominent Romans had much to do with it at all. Thus, to make a name for themselves, Cypriot elites necessarily looked beyond their insular confines and parochial contexts to elevate their status. These are the prominent issues that comprise H.'s short but smart book.
T.B. Mitford's classic study of Roman Cyprus (ANRW 1980) is by now quite dated, and D. Potter's learned contribution (2000, in Modern Greek) is less accessible. T. Fujii's study of imperial cult in Roman Cyprus (2013) and L. Cavelli's recent examination of the Roman annexation in 58 bce (2020) provide further depth. Periodisation for Cyprus can be tricky, with divergent chronologies used by archaeologists and historians, especially for the Roman period and beyond. While H. does not address these issues specifically, her focus is squarely on themes relevant to proper Roman history (the late Republic and Principate) and thus makes a valuable addition to the aforementioned studies.
Evidence is always a challenge, and the few relevant literary texts are certainly well known. H. reviews these in the first chapter, with a focus on what they say about the island's geography, but they have their limits. And so material culture is paramount. However, one will not find in this book in-depth surveys of archaeological sites, and absent are any detailed considerations of ceramic evidence, other items and structures pertaining to daily life, and the fine artistic objects and luxuries of the island's upper crust. While the most important archaeological studies are cited in the bibliography, even some cursory discussion would have set a better contextual framework for those less familiar with the history of Cyprus, especially with respect to broader developments in connectivity and exchange.
Epigraphy is arguably the most important source, and H. does well to update, correct and in some cases discard older speculative readings and reconstructions. The corpus of Cypriot inscriptions is scattered across several different publications, and so one must do the hard work of collecting and collating them for analysis, as H. does successfully. A minor quibble: for the inscriptions of Paphos she relies on J.B. Cayla's 2003 thesis and not his updated, comprehensive catalogue (2018). The ongoing preparation and publication of the Cyprus volumes of the Inscriptiones Graecae will facilitate future research for the Roman period, and the appearance of the second volume (M. Kantiréa and D. Summa [2020]) came too late (as noted in a footnote, p. 112). H.'s book includes six maps and site plans, but no other images, which would have been especially helpful in discussions of coins and various monuments. Furthermore, H.'s analysis of a few noteworthy inscriptions could have benefited from, at a minimum, transcriptions and full translations, although these are available elsewhere.
In the introduction H. establishes the chronological framing from 58 bce to the mid-fourth century, although in practice the third and fourth centuries receive minimal attention. Roman Cyprus was once described as a place of ‘tranquil obscurity’ (Mitford [1980], 1295), as if it was inert, and H. sets out to challenge this and to ‘champion it as a dynamic and rewarding case study for explorations of local experience and identity formation in the Roman provinces’ (p. xiv). In Chapter 1, after the survey of literary sources, she provides some theoretical reflections on the island and islands, and she eschews models that lean too heavily on some concept of Mediterranean unity, top-down mechanisms of Romanisation or a centre–periphery binary. Instead, H. embraces an approach that recognises the dynamic fluidity of identity formation and Cyprus as both a unique locale and one that merits comparative analysis with other places often regarded as being on the margins of the Roman Empire.
Chapter 2 examines the Roman annexation of Cyprus, with a careful reconsideration of the Cypriots’ reaction to the new hegemony. Rather than viewing their acquiescence as a sign of their cultural submission and homogeneity, H. suggests that this was a pragmatic step. Resistance was not an option, and what has been perceived as a weak Cypriot reaction has more to do with the limited scope of Cassius Dio's account. What follows is a discussion of Cyprus before and after Actium, after which it became a senatorial province. H. then updates the list of the known proconsuls, a veritable who's who of relative nobodies (with a few exceptions). Notably, the infamous Sergius Paullus and his alleged Christian conversion provide a moment for a brief digression to consider how the Pauline tradition reflects more a ‘cultural product of its time’ (p. 50) and not evidence for the early uptake of Christianity on the island. While most proconsuls were not major players in Roman politics, for the Cypriots they were important power conduits, worthy of honour, as expressed in the epigraphy of numerous monuments. This is where H.'s focus on local identity is most illuminating, as she shows how the island's elites proactively worked to raise their status. In particular, the activities of the koinon Kuprion demonstrate the attempts of native notables to negotiate traditional priorities with interests at an imperial level.
Chapter 3 studies how Cypriots used Roman citizenship to articulate an identity that was infused with local elements while at the same time projected a sense of belonging to the broader Empire. Interactions with the few exceptional Romans who visited the island were important moments to work out this double process. Conversely, H. considers trading communities from Italy that had a presence on Cyprus, and how these foreign residents and their descendants in reverse fashion embraced aspects of local Cypriot culture, such as religious cult, while preserving a distinctly Roman identity. But the island's natives also coveted grants of citizenship and, when acquired, publicised it onomastically and monumentally to elevate their family prestige. For the rare instances when evidence for Cypriots living abroad is available, H. highlights their participation in the broader cultural, economic and political world of Greece and of the Roman Empire.
The fourth and final chapter closely examines the formation and articulation of local identities at the level of the individual polis, especially through foundation myths and local cults. Cypriots were interested in advertising their cities’ connection to Greek gods and Homeric heroes, and the many variations, adaptations, innovations and overlaps illustrate the ways in which the island's inhabitants moulded these stories to highlight their unique local landscapes, but also shared insular identities. Material evidence, in the form of temples and sanctuaries, as well as inscriptions (like the oath of allegiance to Tiberius) also show how Cypriots could link together the worship of local divinities with that of the imperial cult, thus constructing a dual identity.
H.'s book offers focused reflections on themes that are at the forefront of scholarship on Roman history. It is also an important contribution to historiographical discussions about islands: their local dimensions and broader connections. While her book is not a comprehensive study of the island in this period (nor does it claim to be), this work of social, cultural and political history of Cyprus under Roman rule achieves its stated goals with insight.
