Introduction
The surviving textual corpora and historical evidence yield numerous examples of collecting artefacts in pre-Islamic and Islamic Iran. One notable example of the Islamic period is the Chini Khāne (House of Porcelain) in Ardebil, in north-west Iran.Footnote 1 The complex of Safi al-Din of Ardebil (1253–1334 ce) comprised the tombs of Sufi masters and Safavid rulers (1501–1722 ce), as well as spaces for rituals and worship in Ardebil (Akhtari Reference Akhtari1999: 128). Shah Tahmasp (r. 1524–76 ce) transformed the individual structures that had been previously built by various characters into a unified complex. Following a renovation during the reign of Shah Abbas I (r. 1588–1629 ce), the Chini Khāne, was added to the complex to house Shah Abbas’s dedication of Persian and Arabic manuscripts and Chinese artefacts (see, for instance, Pope Reference Pope1956: 6–7; Dibaj Reference Dibaj1968: 165–6; Safari Reference Safari1992: 246; Jahangirfar Reference Jahangirfar2013: 15–7; Kadoi Reference Kadoi and Kadoi2018: 65–73).
In around 1637, a German traveller called Adam Olearius described a building called Tzenetsera (i.e. Jannat Sarā, “Heavenly Abode”), stating that more than three or four hundred pieces of porcelain were located there, some of which could hold more than 40 litres of wine (Olearius Reference Olearius and Davies1669: 179; see also Carswell Reference Carswell and Yarshater1991: 592; Jahangirfar Reference Jahangirfar2013: 17–8; Kadoi Reference Kadoi and Kadoi2018: 69). It seems that the Chini Khāne also had a library. The books in this collection were placed in drawers in no particular order, but they were carefully preserved.Footnote 2
The list of Shah Abbas’s gifts informs us that the royal donation included 1,162 pieces and 29 different types of Chinese artefacts (Pope Reference Pope1956: 7–11; Medley Reference Medley and Yarshater1986: 364; Carswell Reference Carswell and Yarshater1991: 592; Akhtari Reference Akhtari1999: 129; Jahangirfar Reference Jahangirfar2013, 18; Kadoi Reference Kadoi and Kadoi2018: 69). Based on the existing travelogues, Pope concluded that although some travellers did not even mention the Chini Khāne, these writings, as a whole, provide a complete picture of the activities transpired by and around the shrine on a national level and its role in Iran, especially in the seventeenth century (Pope Reference Pope1956: 12).
During the Russo-Persian war (1826–28), Paskevich, a Russian army commander, transferred a portion of this collection to St. Petersburg. In 1935, a total of 805 pieces out of 1,162 were relocated to the newly established Iran Bastan Museum in Tehran (Pope Reference Pope1956: 49; see also Medley Reference Medley and Yarshater1986: 364; Kadoi Reference Kadoi and Kadoi2018: 71). The remaining objects have been on display since 1991, i.e. when the Sheikh Safi Museum in Ardebil was established (Jahangirfar Reference Jahangirfar2013: 19).
It is surprising that the Chini Khāne and other similar collections did not merely mean to entertain a select few but acted as places for collection and research. Historical documents explicitly and implicitly clarify that the Qajars were aware of many Safavid traditions; for instance, following a Safavid custom, on the eve of Aqa Mohammad Khan Qajar’s (r. 1789–97) coronation, Shah Ismail Safavi’s (1487–1524) sword was suspended from the roof of Safi al-Din’s shrine in Ardebil while prayers for the new king’s welfare were recited (Scarce Reference Scarce2001: 106). Yet, it was not until the reign of Naser al-Din Shah Qajar (r. 1848–96) that the term musée was adopted into Persian from French and the first museums were founded in Iran. The emergence of the new institution should be viewed within a broader context engaged with new scientific, technological and social findings and reforms. The Shah became familiar with the concept of the museum as well as many other social and scientific phenomena in Europe. However, in practice this familiarity did not result in meaningful changes as the Shah was unwilling to make such changes. Even his beloved daughter, Taj al-Saltaneh (1982: 16-17) criticized him for womanizing and busying himself with a cat rather than taking care of agriculture or resolving political issues. The Royal Museum may be interpreted as a blend of the Iranian tradition of collecting artefacts and new Western concepts of the museum. Naser al-Din Shah established at least two museums in Tehran: the Royal Museum (Muze-ye Homayouni) in the Golestan Palace, and another that focused on wildlife in a part of the Saltanat Abad Palace.Footnote 3 While there are several accounts concerning the Royal Museum, there is very little information about the other.
It is also noteworthy that prior to the establishment of the museum, there were certain rooms inside palaces and some mansions called atiqe khāne or ajib khāne – perhaps comparable to Wunderkammer or “cabinets of curiosity” in Renaissance Europe – in which old relics, precious or extraordinary objects were housed. Such spaces emerged in the Golestan Palace in Tehran during the reign of Fath Ali Shah (r. 1797–1834). Naser al-Din Shah and Mozaffar al-Din Shah (r. 1896–1907) expanded the royal collections until 1907, when the Ministry of Education and Fine Arts established the General Directorate of Antiquities, and responsibilities regarding the preservation of ancient artefacts were assigned to the municipality of Tehran (see Takmil Homayoun Reference Takmil Homayoun2006: 97; Ekhtiar Reference Ekhtiar, Rastegar and Vanzan2007: 86–7).
This study examines the introduction of the concept of the museum and its foundation in Iran based on the writings of Iranians and non-Iranians, primarily the Shah’s travelogues. First, it provides an overview of the country’s social, economic, and political situation at the time of establishing the museums. It then investigates the Shah’s travelogues to European countries to see which museums he visited there. These travelogues are examined in relation to several key museological and museographical concepts. These include: classification of museums (general, natural history and natural science, science and technology, history, and art); interaction between museums and their respective communities; embodiment of social and cultural values; relevance of current social discourses or recent scientific developments to museum activities; preservation of heritage by museums; investments by states and private sectors in collecting, researching, and exhibiting artefacts and specimens, and specialized administrative staff and curators. Finally, it will examine the writings by Iranians and non-Iranians about the two museums established in Tehran.
Background
Naser al-Din Shah was the fourth Qajar king, who ascended the throne upon the death of his father, Mohammad Shah (1808–48), in 1848. What he inherited from his predecessors was a chaotic situation marked by economic stagnation, weak foreign policy, social inequality, prevalent superstitious beliefs, and an industrially underdeveloped country. His life exemplifies the challenges and weaknesses common to most rulers across the Islamic world in the nineteenth century. During his rule, European influence in Iran extended beyond military expansion and diplomatic rivalry between Russia, Britain, and France. Europe also presented an alternative approach to governance, challenging the traditional concepts and practices that leaders like Naser al-Din Shah were used to (Amanat Reference Amanat1997: xiii; see also Ekhtiar Reference Ekhtiar, Rastegar and Vanzan2007: 91). Students sent to Europe had become aware of new social movements, political changes, and new realities of the world, such as people’s rights in elections and the abolition of absolutism. Having become aware of alternative models of government, Iranians who visited the West gradually began to adopt and adapt those concepts, trying to utilize them in their own country. In fact, “the idea of law and order and a keen awareness of the abuses of power were spreading, particularly among the educated classes, while the Persian press abroad maintained its criticism of the government and attacked its despotic practices. Amin al-Soltan, the powerful chief minister from 1883 to the end of Naser-al-Din Shah’s reign, however, did not take such criticisms seriously and attempted to maintain the status quo as far as he could” (Yarshater Reference Yarshater2016). This period also saw new challenges and opportunities brought about by technological developments such as the introduction of the telegraph in the 1880s, as well as the formation of a propertied middle class and an intelligentsia “committed to the need for fundamental social, cultural, and political change” (Diba Reference Diba2012: 645–6).
Over and above other issues, the Qajars had been bitterly defeated in a number of wars, especially against the Russians. One contributing factor to their failures in these battles was their ignorance of the day’s politics and other countries’ internal affairs. For instance, regarding Fath Ali Shah, “It was the manner of his dealings with the Russians as much as anything else that made contemporary British observers assume that Fatḥ ʽAli Shāh lived in a world of fantasy” (Hambly Reference Hambly, Avery, Hambly and Melville1991: 149). His crown prince, Abbas Mirza, was a tireless warrior who fought the Russians in particular for several years. Yet, the Qajars were defeated and forced into agreement on the terms of two infamous treaties, Golestan (1813) and Turkmenchay (1828), as a result of which vast territories ceded from Iran and were included into the Russian Empire (for Abbas Mirza see Busse Reference Busse2018). These defeats and the ensuing treaties were a severe “psychological blow”, especially for “those at the helm of Iranian society” (Grigor Reference Grigor, Babaie and Grigor2015: 222).
Qajar ignorance about the day’s diplomacy and the Iran-related policies of France, Britain, and Russia is perhaps best exemplified by the significance of India, a valuable colony of Britain, and the threats that the two other countries could pose to it through Iran (see, for instance, Yarshater Reference Yarshater2001: 187).
These setbacks and devastating losses led a few courtiers, most notably Premier Sepahsalar, to decide to send Naser al-Din Shah to Europe, hoping that this would make the king realize the changes necessary to ameliorate the situation in Iran. The king was undoubtedly impressed by what he saw in Europe, but not necessarily in a way by which the general public would benefit. As noted by Ehsan Yarshater (Reference Yarshater2016), “Naser-al-Din Shah was a well-meaning king as long as his purse and pleasure were not involved. He attempted some reforms with limited success, including at one point establishment of a court of justice, and supported the sending of the graduates of Dar-al-Fonun [lit. Polytechnic College] to study abroad. […] He was keen on hunting and on French wine. He learned some French and enjoyed having historical and literary works read to him”.
One account, of quite a few, in his third travelogue, should suffice to show that he was observant of details, though he does not appear to have been willing to make a similar sacrifice for his country. Visiting the Netherlands, he notes (Third Diary, I: 267–8):Footnote 4
Zaandam is a modest town, where Peter the Great, Emperor of Russia, stayed for a while during his travels abroad. There, he spent some time learning the art of shipbuilding and personally engaged in constructing vessels […] This place holds a particular position for the Russian government – indeed, it exercises direct oversight, and a grand banner of the Russian state is displayed here.
In this chamber, we pondered greatly. A mighty ruler such as Peter the Great once resided here for a while, and bore much toil. He labored with his own hands in building ships, showing a true and earnest care for his realm and his people. The efforts he exerted at that time have not been in vain – after centuries, one now witnesses the fruits of his work. We thought deeply about this matter.
Despite all the reforms he penned in his notebooks, he introduced a select few technologies and reforms restrictedly, and to a great extent insufficiently, in Iran. It seems that a blend of reasons was at play to deter him from more fundamental reforms and changes. There is evidence that the Shah deemed some new sciences and advances a threat to his power. A good case is Dar al-Fonun. The Shah himself was one of the supporters of the establishment of this new college in Tehran, although his view of the institution changed after the formation of the Farāmoush Khāne (House of Oblivion, modelled on the masonic lodges of Europe). Originally intended to reinforce the Shah’s power and improve governance, the Farāmoush Khāne soon became associated with Dar al-Fonun as it had a growing number of the college’s graduates among its members. The Farāmoush Khāne advocated political reform, constitutionalism, and the rule of law. This raised the Shah’s suspicions, especially following Bābi uprisings and an unsuccessful assassination attempt against the Shah, despite his initial agreement on the formation of this society. Subsequently, he began to view the school and Western education with distrust, associating them with seditious activity that reminded him of the French Revolution. Notwithstanding, he did not shut down the college. Instead, he modified the curricula to evade the alleged threats. Over time, the school’s military and scientific focus declined, while subjects such as photography, music, painting, and European languages – in which the Shah was interested – received more attention (Ekhtiar Reference Ekhtiar2001: 156–9).Footnote 5 While the Shah’s education was traditionally based on Islamic studies as well as Persian and Arabic languages, it also included French history and geography. Hence, he sponsored translations of European books on these subjects (Scarce Reference Scarce2007: 461). The following passage about the Luxembourg Palace, for instance, marks his awareness of the fate of the French monarchy:
This is a stately and extensive palace with its gardens, of the time of Louis XVI, its gardens being now open to the public, so that people go there every day to walk about. Its beds of flowers are very beautiful. The Hotel de Ville or town-hall being now a ruin and burnt down, this edifice has been assigned as the place for the offices of the city. (First Diary, 250)
The first encounters
Naser al-Din Shah visited Europe three times, in 1873, 1878 and 1889, and kept diaries of his journeys. On each occasion he visited various museums across Europe. In his second and third travelogues, he often mentions previous visits to the same museum. It is noteworthy that he also visited several aquariums, zoological and botanical gardens – institutes that were already considered “museums” by some organizations, and later were included in the definitions offered by the ICOM.Footnote 6 He also often mentions visiting places that were comparable with museums. For instance, he writes about the Charlotte Pavilion in Potsdam, where Dr Humboldt used to live. This mansion had “some small rooms, full of curiosities, preserved like those of a museum. It had a curator” (First Diary, 90–91). Furthermore, he mentions visiting a library in Bologna, where he sees “some writings in the Egyptian character, written, two thousand years ago […] There were also some objects usually found in museums, [such as] sculptures from Egypt and other places” (First Diary, 352–4).
Another noteworthy example is the private collection in Wilanów, a suburb of Warsaw, owned by Countess Potocki. The Shah is impressed by the excellent paintings, as well as other exquisite items. “There were so many fine paintings that it was impossible to count; there were at least five hundred paintings. There were a great number of precious and antique Chinese porcelain objects […] All the objects in this mansion […] belonged to this countess. They had made a globe out of cardboard that showed all the maps on it, and it was very old. I looked at that globe and saw the map of Iran on it, which was the map of Iran from the time of Shah Abbas Safavi. It is clear that it was made during the time of Louis Catherz, who was Louis XIV of France” (Third Diary, I: 199, 201). The Shah is also impressed by the estates and collections of the Rothschilds in England, especially Waddesdon Manor in Buckinghamshire, whose valuable collection was partly inherited and partly purchased (Third Diary, II: 73–83).
He also writes about exhibitions and expositions, in which various countries could participate and showcase their artefacts and goods. For instance, visiting “the great Vienna Exhibition”, he describes the Iranian pavilion built by Hosein Ali of Isfahan – a building that resembled the tower of Eshrat Abad in Tehran. Inside the great exhibition building, “where every country has a separate room or hall”, he is informed that Persian articles – including mosaic work – have good buyers, as one of them was just “sold for forty tomans (£16)” (Second Diary, 168–9; for an exposition in Paris see Third Diary, II: 186–9). Visiting these exhibitions, along with the museums and private collections, the king was further familiarized with art markets, and the potential role of museums as places for creating or emulating artistic works (see below).
The first tour
During his first European journey, he visited museums in different locations including Moscow, St. Petersburg, Berlin, Brussels, Windsor, Les Invalides, Paris, and Geneva. The first museum he mentions is the Ethnographic Museum in Moscow. Housed in “a fine building”, this museum exhibited a collection of wax models representing different peoples subject to Russia, “each dressed in its special local costume, so as to look like living men”. This museum also showcased the arms and implements of native Americans and Africans. The museum also had “a library said to contain two hundred thousand volumes” (First Diary, 40).
Afterwards, he visits the Hermitage in St. Petersburg. Despite his brief and not so enthusiastic note on the museum in Moscow, he appears quite keen on the Hermitage, which he visits multiple times. The first time, he “took a little turn in the museum of the Hermitage” (First Diary, 46). With his interest piqued, he returns for a second visit. This time, the director provides him with information about the paintings, marble statues, large and small water-basins from Siberia and elsewhere, and many other “strange and wonderful things worthy to be seen. More especially, there were marble statues in the form of men, women, and children, standing, or lying down, at which one marveled” (First Diary, 48). Impressed by the size of the museum’s collection, he admits that “To see every picture and every statue in every room would require ten days or more; as we merely looked on them for a moment, we really comprehended nothing about them. We incessantly strolled from room to room and from hall to hall” (First Diary, 49). At some point, he is informed that the director himself has travelled widely to find and purchase ancient statues from Egypt and other locations (First Diary, 49). His meticulousness is particularly revealed in comments on certain objects. For instance, while being informed about how the collection has been formed, he does not miss the “due proportion” of “one colossal statue of a man sitting, as large as an elephant” (First Diary, 49). He also learns that some artefacts have been dug up during excavations, and finds out about paintings of old English, Italian, and Spanish masters (First Diary, 49).
Enthusiastic to see the crown jewels, he visits the Hermitage for a third time. He gives a list of items such as “a golden peacock there, which they wound up, and which then spread its tail beautifully” (First Diary, 53). Upstairs, he sees the emperor’s crown and sceptre, and the Lazarof diamond attached on top of the latter, as well as the jewels of the empress (First Diary, 53).
The Hermitage is not the only museum he mentions in St. Petersburg. Paying a visit to the Grand Duke Constantine, brother of the emperor, he recounts the duke’s fine collection of numerous models of naval appliances, ships, and guns, as well as a library and a museum (First Diary, 51–2).
Moving to Berlin, he keeps a rather brief note about a museum. He observes the designs and scenes on the walls, drawn on plaster. The director, named Lepsinius, accompanies the king. Of the objects, he mainly mentions plaster figures “imitatively prepared after the works of Greek and other artists”, and other objects of porcelain, crystal, ivory, amber, wood, etc. (First Diary, 94).
The details and observations he shares with us do not concern just the physical descriptions of objects inside the museums. He often provides the history of certain objects, collections, or even the museums’ buildings. At times, he regards the museums in their historical contexts in addition to discussing their present state. In Brussels, for instance, he begins his account with “a tower, in appearance like a palace, anciently erected within the city, and so preserved ever since, – now used as a museum”. After that he deals with the collections inside: “There are in it the arms and implements of (all) nations, – even many of the daggers, straight and curved, and of the knives of Persia, – all arranged with great taste” (First Diary, 134).
One of his shortest accounts is about the royal museum at Windsor Castle which, in his opinion, “is very ancient, and externally has not much ornament. […] But the interior of the Castle is highly ornamented, is pretty, and full of objects, with very handsome rooms, halls, and corridors, and a museum of arms and armour” (First Diary, 151).
Finally, he reaches France, where he writes at length about collections, museums, and gardens in his three travelogues. The first French museum he visits is the palace of the Invalides. Based on his notes, it seems that some historic objects were displayed in a space before entering the building, such as Napoleon’s sword, which he used at Austerlitz. The museum itself is a war museum, showcasing various types of old and new cannons and related inventions, as well as old weapons of commanders and heroes. The king notes that all items are ticketed with a number and with the names of their owners (First Diary, 234–5). But Paris has a lot more to offer to the curious king. So, for the first time he goes “to the palace of Louvre, where all the philosophers and learned men of Paris were assembled” (First Diary, 246). The Minister of Sciences, a person called Batbie, accompanies the king. Surprisingly, his first report on the Louvre is terse and refers mainly to ancient and modern marble statues and armoury. In the same city, he also visits the National Printing Office, where he learns about various techniques of printing by hand or by machine (First Diary, 256). After that, he goes to the Louvre again. On the road he views “several places burnt and ruined by the men of the Commune” (First Diary, 256). This time, he shares more information about the Louvre with us:
There was a long hall, of very pleasing arrangement, and named the Galerie d’Apollon, i.e., of the specific deity of beauty, poetry, and singing. Here were large numbers of vases in jasper, and jewelled, in rockcrystal, and the like, of ancient goldsmiths’ and silversmiths’ work, of articles of gold and silver dug up out of the earth, and of curiosities and gems of art of the whole world, – the whole in cases or under glass. There is also, in a case, an arm-bone of Charlemagne, who was Emperor of the whole of Firangistān [i.e. Europe]. A gold casket antique, in most exquisite goldsmiths’ work, was the property of Anne of Austria, mother of Louis XIV. This hall is itself one of the buildings of the last-named monarch. They have made a copy of the Crown of Louis XV, with false jewels, and have placed it there. The sword and sceptre of Charlemagne are there also.
We then visited the whole of the halls where the paintings are hung. These are all works of artists of celebrity […] There were some works by Raphael, a renowned painter, though I myself gave a preference over all others to the productions of the pencil of Albani, who was a master of great taste. Murillo, too, was very good. There were also many pictures by other artists; for instance, there was one valued at more than thirty thousand tūmāns (12,000l.) (First Diary, 256–7).
As mentioned before, the Shah was familiar with the history of Europe, especially the French Revolution, which had put an end to the monarchy in France just a few decades earlier. The Louvre, as a public museum, embodied some goals of the French Revolution and Naser al-Din Shah seems to have understood it well.Footnote 7
In Paris, he also visits the Zoological and Botanical Gardens (the Jardin des Plantes). It is one of the longest and most detailed accounts he has ever provided (First Diary, 261–6). In the gardens, the king notices that plant specimens are numbered and ticketed, while researchers are constantly at work, especially on medicinal herbs. Living animals are kept in cages, while a collection of dead animals is preserved in the museum of the establishment. He is impressed by the birds, especially the distinct ones: “The whole of these dead birds have been procured in Pairs, male and female, with their eggs, and with the very nests they had constructed for themselves; and are arranged in glass cases. […] I there saw four bird’s-eggs, each of which was of the size of a large melon, and they informed me that the kind of bird to which they belonged is no longer in existence in the world. […] The birds called Sīmurg and Rukh, that we read of in books, must have been the produce of eggs such as these” (First Diary, 263–4).
In Geneva, he becomes familiar with another museum activity, that is, museums as scientific labs. A professor of physics carries out some scientific experiments and shows interesting sights produced by the power of electricity in coloured glass vessels in a dark room (First Diary, 285). After seeing this experiment, the king goes to another building in which there is an exhibition of paintings by Swiss and other artists, “of which I purchased six or seven very beautiful” (First Diary, 286).
The second tour
In his second European journey, in 1878, the king’s museum adventures begin with the Museum of Tbilisi, which showcases living animals, instruments and tools and rare curious articles of different tribes and nations; various specimens of butterflies and small and large creatures. He emphasizes that lifelike representations of dead animals have been crafted pretty well, while “a large Black Sea Jonah fish, a strange creature indeed” is on display too. The museum’s collection also contains numerous mineral specimens, flora, fauna, and timber from the forests of the Caucasus (Second Diary, 80–81).
Once again in Moscow, he writes very briefly about going “to the museum located beneath the grand edifice. There, I beheld crowns and other regal adornments” (Second Diary, 93). He then heads to Warsaw, where “there is a museum whose building’s foundation has been laid by the old kings of Poland, sixty or seventy years ago. The Russians completed it. Inside the museum, every kind of creature from America, Africa, etc. as well as various birds, shells, fishes, and others are displayed” (Second Diary, 113).
Back in France, the king writes a lengthy account of the estate and museum in Saint Germain. The museum displays a collection of weapons used by the ancient Romans and Gauls of France. He examines the weapons and even shoots a few spears with a machine. Upstairs, he finds “a great number of old items, dug out of the ground, or found elsewhere, dating from a period anterior to, or contemporary with the Flood – for example when mankind had yet to discover iron” (Second Diary, 194). He notes that “the old castle of Saint Germain […] was built by Francis I, king of France. At a corner of it stands a tower called Tour de Nejone, which was built long before the castle, during the reign of Charles V, king of France, and the chapel of the castle dates from the time of St. Louis. The museum here was created by Napoleon III; the collection is at present increased day by day” (Second Diary, 197–8).
The last museums to be visited in his second tour are in Vienna. He first goes to the state treasury along with its museum. The chief treasurer opens the showcases if the Shah wishes to examine an object more closely. This collection contains objects made of mineral stones, as well as coins, gold and silver items, and old instruments discovered during excavations. He particularly writes about a sizeable yellow-coloured arrowhead-shaped diamond, weighing one hundred and thirty-three and a third carats and cut in Indian, on one of the crowns. “It once belonged to Charles le Téméraire, Duke of Burgundy. It was lost during the Battle of Morat in 1476. It is said that a villager found it and sold it for a franc. Later on, it was acquired by the House of Medici of Florence, from which it passed to Marie Thérèse of Austria, who added it to her crown” (Second Diary, 217–8). The king is particularly amused by a large clock, a gift from a Prince of Hesse to Marie Thérèse and King Francis I, her husband. The clock was a mechanical toy: when wound up, the figures of Marie Thérèse and Francis I, accompanied by their attendants, appeared. Satan appeared in the sky, but was struck by an angel before having a chance to destroy them (Second Diary, 218).
He finally goes to the Belvedere. Inside the museum, he sees Egyptian and Roman tombs as well as various other antiquities. The mansion, constructed by Prince Eugène de Savoie, is full of artefacts too. He is told that two new buildings are being constructed in Vienna, expected to be completed in two years – the new buildings will house all the paintings of the Belvedere as well as objects preserved in this museum and other places (Second Diary, 220–1).
The third tour
Like his second tour, Naser al-Din Shah begins his third and last round of visits to European museums from Tbilisi. After 11 years, the king notices that some objects have been added to the collection. Also, another level has been constructed above the building. “Toward the end of the museum, I saw the notes I had once written and given as a keepsake. I thanked the Almighty God, praising Him, for by His grace, I had returned safely after eleven years. I wrote down another note there” (Third Diary, I: 120).
He then goes to Moscow, where he visits the museums in the Kremlin. He remembers that 11 years ago, the current director of the museum was the chief custodian. The museum contains “numerous old items within the museum including the ceremonial gifts of old rulers and old artefacts such as the Turquoise Throne sent as a gift by Shah Abbas […] I have detailed all these items thoroughly in my previous travelogue” (Third Diary, I: 138).
In St. Petersburg, the king visits a museum, which is a treasury of exquisite jewels and antique objects. “Portraits of previous emperors, generals, and [paintings of] battles fought in the past were all displayed within [the] halls and corridors” (Third Diary, I: 150). Although he does not mention the specific name of the museum, it appears to be the Hermitage. In the chamber that houses the crown jewels, “we saw old portraits – watercolor works drawn by hand – which, in truth, surpass even the value of jewels. We saw all the gems in glass cases. I have described in detail the museum and its collection in my first travelogue, so it is unnecessary to repeat here. Nothing new has been added except that, as I heard, the peacock that I wrote about on my previous journey – which danced and spun gracefully – is not working. It was said to be broken, and they were not able to fix it here” (Third Diary, I: 150).
Moving westward, he looks up two museums in The Netherlands: the Maritime Museum and a zoo in Zaandam, north of Amsterdam, and the Colonial Museum in Harlem.
In the lower level of the Maritime Museum, models of warships and merchant vessels – scaled-down replicas from the Netherlands – are displayed. Another group of objects that grabs the king’s attention is the collection of flags captured in battles. Marble busts of Dutchmen, dressed in the clothes of their time, old cannons, antique muskets, armour, helmets, breastplates, vambraces, and many other artefacts constitute other collections. Upstairs houses a gallery with paintings, which are beyond description, as “one would need at least a month to observe all of these paintings thoroughly” (Third Diary, I: 260).
On the lower level of the Colonial Museum, a section has been dedicated to objects and artefacts from Dutch colonies, including samples of their products, woods, and textiles, as well as clothes and weapons. On the upper floor, various objects, such as European glassware and porcelain, as well as Chinese and Japanese porcelain and fabrics, are kept. There are also copies of Greek sculptures. He notes that “the building was originally constructed by a money exchanger. Later, Napoleon took it and gave it to his brother. It is now a government-owned museum” (Third Diary, I: 272).
In Scotland, he pays a short visit to the Edinburgh Museum of Science and Art. The director is a person called Smith, who, twenty years ago, helped the establishment of the Telegraph line between Iran and India (Third Diary, II: 140; see also Scarce Reference Scarce2007: 465). The Shah has lunch in one of the museum’s rooms, which contains old and new Iranian objects. The museum also possesses the first locomotive invented by Stephenson. Another section of the museum exhibits dead animals – birds, snakes, etc. – from India, Africa, and America (Third Diary, II: 140–1).
His revisiting the Louvre in 1889 is important as the Shah primarily intends to see the artefacts transported to Paris from Susa (in present-day Khuzistan Province, south-west Iran) by the Dieulafoys. He begins this note with an intriguing remark: “The Louvre itself, along with its treasures, is famous and everybody knows about it, and there is no need for elaboration” (Third Diary, II: 197). Madame Dieulafoy receives the Iranian group at the Louvre and ushers them “through one or two rooms and entered a chamber where Dieulafoy’s collection was displayed. Although he did not bring many items, what he has brought is remarkable. There were images of Dara’s [= Darius] soldiers, large stones that once were parts of the columns of Daras’s building, carved in the shape of the bull, and other fine objects – all very fine. We examined everything carefully” (Third Diary, II: 197). Afterwards, he wanders in other galleries displaying ancient and modern objects and paintings:
We then moved on to rooms filled with large paintings […] Among the large, fine paintings, two stood out: one depicted the battle of Alexander the Great against Dara, very glorious, and another portrayed Mary’s face, highly admirable. […] In these galleries, many male and female artists, even 70- or 80-year-old women, sat and copied the paintings. The government has permitted them to emulate and sell copies of these works. New paintings have also been added to the collection in the palace. […] The royal jewels have been sold; what remains includes a sword with a handle inlaid with diamonds and sapphires, very fine – belonging to Charles Dies (Charles X) (Third Diary, II: 198).
After investigating several public museums, he goes to see the Luxembourg Mining Museum, in which many precious stones and gems are exhibited. This museum owns a small but well-kept garden used by the museum staff for part of their operations and administrative work (Third Diary, II: 231–2).
Finally, he goes to the Natural History Museum in Vienna. As confirmed by the Shah, this is one of the new buildings that were under construction during his previous journey. It is a large construction. Upstairs, various animals are on display. “We examined them carefully […] There were many types of monkeys, among them a chimpanzee and another monkey called a gorilla – very large and formidable. Certainly, this gorilla resembles the demon described in stories” (Third Diary, II: 324). Downstairs, precious and semi-precious mineral stones are on exhibit behind glass cases. He mentions a few precious and unique objects made of mineral stones. One of them is “a floral ornament, crafted from inlaid stones and jewels, made to resemble a bouquet of flowers. It was a gift from Empress Marie Thérèse of Austria, beautifully and skilfully fashioned” (Third Diary, II: 325). He concludes this account by pointing out that opposite this museum lies Musée de Beaux-Arts, which is not open to the public yet, as its objects are still being arranged (Third Diary, II: 325).
The Museum in Tehran
Upon returning to Tehran from his travels to Europe, the Shah established two museums: the Royal Museum and the so-called Museum of Natural History. Although we are not well-informed about the latter, both museums were likely created after his first trip to Europe. The Shah established the Royal Museum in the 1870s in the Golestan Palace (Ekhtiar Reference Ekhtiar, Rastegar and Vanzan2007). He also created an inventory of the museum’s objects, including the crown jewels and the royal library, which contained the items collected by himself or inherited from his predecessors.Footnote 8 It is noteworthy that in 1853, Naser al-Din Shah had dedicated a room in the palace to his collection of old and new exquisite weapons encrusted with jewels (Zoka Reference Zoka1970: 133, n. 1). However, after seeing the European museums, he decided to dismantle this room and construct a larger hall for showcasing his collection. The news about this establishment was published in Iranian newspapers. The museum was part of the Golestan Palace, which itself “was the nucleus of both government and a court ceremonial designed to impress subjects and foreigners who were privileged to gain access” (Scarce Reference Scarce2007: 456; see also Scarce Reference Scarce2001: 104–5; Grigor Reference Grigor, Babaie and Grigor2015: 219–33).
After his second trip to Europe, the Shah appointed Mirza Yahya Khan Motamed al-Molk, then Minister of Architecture, to oversee the museum’s renovation. In 1881, after almost three years, the new museum opened in a larger space, that is, in the Hall of Greetings (Tālār-e Salām)Footnote 9 of the Golestan Palace (Nasiri-Moghaddam Reference Nasiri-Moghaddam, Devos and Werner2014: 127). The museum was located in the northern part of the palace, while Edifice of the Sun (Shams al-Emāre) was to the east and the Windcatcher Building (Emāret-e Bād-gir) was to the south.
Initially designed to serve as a museum, this space occasionally hosted other ceremonies, such as the New Year’s customs (see also Ekhtiar Reference Ekhtiar, Rastegar and Vanzan2007: 90). The king had learned in Europe that the museum could serve multiple purposes; for instance, he had seen at the Louvre that many artists would go there to copy the works of the masters. Since he was not willing to turn the Royal Museum into a hub for artists, he would hold ceremonies to enliven this space. At the same time, this act would enable him to showcase his power, demonstrate his taste for art and antique objects, and his knowledge of history and familiarity with European royal families and politicians (see also Ekhtiar Reference Ekhtiar, Rastegar and Vanzan2007: 90–91).
The hall itself was not devoid of the artistic taste of the day, as its walls were painted and decorated by the artists who had attended Dar al-Fonun and were familiar with European styles (Ekhtiar Reference Ekhtiar2001: 161). Also, once the museum was established, several old and new paintings by Iranian and European artists were taken from the store to the museum (Moayyer al-Mamalek Reference Moayyer al-Mamalek1982: 42; also Ekhtiar Reference Ekhtiar, Rastegar and Vanzan2007: 85).
In what follows, I examine the writings of Etemad al-Saltaneh (1843–96), a Qajar statesman and author, as well as the travelogues of a few American and European figures who wrote about the Qajar museums.
Iranian sources
A great deal of what we know about the Royal Museum is owed to Mohammad Hasan Khan Etemad al-Saltaneh.Footnote 10 Excelling in French, he was one of the first students to enter the Dar al-Fonun in 1851. He published several books and newspaper articles, which are our primary sources in Persian for studying the establishment of the Royal Museum in Tehran.
It is inferred from his writings that the arrangement of the objects inside the museum was carried out under the Shah’s supervision. Also, the Shah was personally involved in arranging the objects. In April/May 1883, Etemad al-Saltaneh wrote the following piece in the newspaper Sharaf (Etemad al-Saltaneh Reference Etemad al-Saltaneh1883):
The museum, so-called by the people of Farang [i.e. Westerners], is a place where antique relics, rare objects, treasures, and curiosities from around the world are kept. The learned benefit from every object kept in it by uncovering secrets and becoming familiar with the states and conditions of each era, its industries and crafts, its customs and manners […] One may say that the museum is the embodiment of intellect, the measure of minds, and the degree of nations’ understanding […] Arduous problems are resolved here […] Thus, the Royal Museum too is a treasury full of valuable jewels, excellent and precious rare items, noble scientific artifacts, weapons, various instruments and tools, the handicrafts of old times, the fruits of the thoughts of wise persons, […] and paintings by renowned artists, and products of famous factories, vessels and porcelain of most esteemed workmanship from China, Sèvres, England, and Japan, and glassware from the factories of Saxony, Venice, and other famous places, along with old coins […] The library is next to the Royal Museum, in which thousands of volumes […] exist.
In another note, published in the newspaper Iran, he encouraged the public to offer their valuable items and antiques to the museum for a reasonable price (Zoka Reference Zoka1970: 123). In his diaries of 1897, he wrote (quoted in Zoka Reference Zoka1970: 127):
The hall of the Royal Museum, which is forty-three ells long and eighteen ells wide, and has twenty arches, lies north of the Winter Palace and the royal garden. […] through broad marble steps adorned with different porcelain vases, malachite, and fine statues, one ascends unto a terrace. […] From this terrace, by two further richly adorned steps, one finds oneself beneath a lofty and spacious archway. To the south of this arch lies the Golestan Hall, in which stands the famous Peacock Throne. To the west is the Museum Hall, while to the north the library, and to the east the Ivory Hall (Tālār-e Āj), from whence one can go to the Crystal Hall (Tālār-e Bolour), and from there unto the hall known as the Orangery.
Once the construction was over, he wrote:
The King of Iran, Naser al-Din Shah who, by the grace of God, is now in the thirty-sixth year of his reign, sat in the Museum Room, which has recently been completed. The Museum Room is a very spacious hall, unparalleled in Iran. Indeed, no hall of such grandeur has been constructed elsewhere in Iran. It is larger than the Safavid rooms in Isfahan, although I have not seen them personally – I have heard. The ceiling is an arched brick vault, comprising a central space and several corridors, all richly adorned, with big chandeliers hanging from above (Etemad al-Saltaneh Reference Etemad al-Saltanehn.d.: 85).
Western travellers
Once the Royal Museum was established in Tehran, Western diplomats and travellers were eager to pay a visit. The notes by an American and three Europeans will be reviewed below: Samuel Greene Wheeler Benjamin (the first American Minister to Persia), Johannes Feuvrier (a court physician), George Curzon (a politician), and Gertrude Bell (an archaeologist, explorer, and political officer). While these four share some opinions about the museum, they sometimes provide supplementary details.
S.G.W. Benjamin (1837–1914) was appointed Minister Resident/Consul General to Iran in 1883, a post he held until its termination in May 1885 (see also Ekhtiar Reference Ekhtiar, Rastegar and Vanzan2007: 86).Footnote 11 Although he does not use the word “museum”, in his book he observes that the most imposing portion of the palace of Naser al-Din Shah “is the grand audience-chamber, which in dimensions and splendor of effect is one of the most imposing halls in the world. The ceiling and mural decorations are of stucco, but so were those in the Alhambra. The floor is paved with beautiful glazed tiles, arranged in the most exquisite mosaic” (Benjamin Reference Benjamin1887: 73). In addition to priceless items such as the Peacock Throne, Benjamin points out that the “magnificence of the Shah’s audience-hall is still further heightened by the fact that here also are stored many of the crown jewels [… b]ut one need only see the treasures in the audience hall to obtain an idea that Persia is still a land of wealth, and that the tales of splendor recounted in oriental story were not wholly the fictions of a fancy steeped in opium” (Benjamin Reference Benjamin1887: 73). He also provides a brief history of some notable objects, such as the Peacock Throne brought from Delhi by Nader Shah (1688–1747), and the crowns and jewelled coats-of-mail dating back to the reign of Shah Ismail (1487–1524). Like other visitors, to be discussed further below, Benjamin writes about the famous globe of the world,Footnote 12 “twenty inches in diameter, turning on a frame of solid gold: the surface of the earth is represented by precious stones, different colors being used to indicate the divisions of land and sea; the ocean is entirely of turquoise, and Persia is represented by a compact mosaic of diamonds” (Benjamin Reference Benjamin1887: 74). He concludes his observation of the museum remarking that this magnificent chamber of audience still clings:
to the skirts of this old Empire as evidences of her past triumphs and glory. If such are her diadems and crowns today, what must have been the splendor of the courts of Darius and Xerxes, of Anushirwān and Chosrū, of Shah Abbass and Nadīr Shah? Let one but consider the many ages of Persia’s national existence, the nations that contributed to her riches, the pageantries for which her court has always been renowned, the vast extent of territory once swayed by her sceptre (Benjamin Reference Benjamin1887: 74).
Jean-Baptiste Feuvrier (1842–1926), who served as the personal physician of Naser al-Din Shah from 1889 to 1892, was one of the privileged persons who visited the Royal Museum. The insight he offers, like other writers discussed in this article, is remarkable both regarding the museum’s hall and the collection. The museum consisted of “a single, very long, very high, vaulted room with five secondary chambers between its side arcades. At the back of these chambers, on one side are the bay windows, and on the other, their simple imitation” (Feuvrier Reference Feuvrier1899: 171). The museum’s collection yielded “everything, from the most valuable objects next to others of no worth, which have only the merit of having piqued the curiosity of the Shah during his travels in Europe, such as, for example, […] the very ordinary fans, the photographs and poor paintings” (Feuvrier Reference Feuvrier1899: 172). The Persian art was under-represented by “armor and cloisonné enamels in the form of writing desks, perfume flasks, jewel-encrusted hookahs, and elegantly shaped ewers”, while antiquity was represented by a few coins and vases made of different materials (Feuvrier Reference Feuvrier1899: 172–3). At the far end of the hall was the crown of Fath Ali Shah, and to its right the globe of Naser al-Din Shah, which was displayed under glass, on an isolated table, where there were no windows (Feuvrier Reference Feuvrier1899: 173).
It is made of solid gold; its mount is inlaid with diamonds; its sphere has its geographical divisions marked by precious stones of different colors, and certain points, such as Tehran, Paris, London, and others, are indicated by a ruby, an emerald, a diamond, a turquoise, or any other original stone (Feuvrier Reference Feuvrier1899: 173).
As regards the other museum, based on his description, the Saltanat Abad Palace was the largest summer residence of the Shah outside of Tehran. The inner building lay at the end of a garden. Nearby was a structure that the Shah referred to as the Natural History Museum, whose collection was made up entirely of paintings of animals by Iranian artists (Feuvrier Reference Feuvrier1899: 261). Further information, although limited, about this museum is provided by Dust Ali Khan Moayyet al-Mamalek (1876–1966), a grandson of the Shah. Describing the Saltanat Abad Palace, he highlights that there was a large building in the middle of the garden. In a few rooms of this structure, collections of butterflies and insects were mounted on the walls in special frames. Also, over 200 of the world’s colourful birds, prepared in lifelike manner, were placed under glass cases on shelves and tables. Pictures of various birds and animals, found in European natural history books, had been painted on the walls of another building in the Saltanat Abad Palace (Moayyer al-Mamalek Reference Moayyer al-Mamalek1982: 51; Etemad al-Saltaneh Reference Etemad al-Saltaneh1888–Reference Etemad al-Saltaneh89: 98).Footnote 13
George Nathaniel Curzon (1859–1925) was an English statesman and writer. He travelled to Iran in 1889 or 90. According to Curzon’s description the Royal Museum, which resembled “an Aladdin’s palace, an old curiosity shop, a prince’s wardrobe, and a municipal museum”, exhibited “not only the Royal Regalia, but also the vast collection of objets d’art and curiosities, which the generosity of foreign crowned heads, or his own whims, have enabled him to amass during a reign of over forty years” (Curzon Reference Curzon1892: 314). The “curiosity”, however, does not have a positive connotation here – meaning valuable for being rare and unusual – as Curzon states that the glass cases “displayed, side by side, treasures of priceless value and the most unutterable rubbish”, which were on display “with some slight effort at arrangement, but in ludicrous juxtaposition” (Curzon Reference Curzon1892: 314). What appears most attractive to Curzon were the countless cut or uncut gems (Curzon Reference Curzon1892: 314). He also takes note of the globe, but even here he mocks this priceless item: “Upon a separate stand appears the globe of jewels which was constructed out of his loose stones by the reigning Shah, […] which is looked upon as the artistic chef d’æuvre of his reign. […] It is a little difficult to determine the respective countries amid the flash of the various stones; nor does the artist appear to have been as good a cartographer as he was a craftsman” (Curzon Reference Curzon1892: 314–5).Footnote 14
There are at least two further points that Curzon shares. He confirms that the museum’s hall was frequently used by the king as an audience chamber to receive ministers and foreign representatives during Now Ruz, i.e. New Year (Curzon Reference Curzon1892: 315). He then points out that there were vaults below the museum, which were used as Chini Khāne, an armoury – in which the Shah’s rifles and fowling-pieces were kept – and a gallery, in which a large collection of Abul Hasan Khan Ghaffari’s (1814–66) paintings were preserved. He admits, however, that he did not personally see these vaults (Curzon Reference Curzon1892: 316–7). He concludes this tour with the following comment (Curzon Reference Curzon1892: 317):
In a country that is always bewailing its lack of money, and which cries aloud for the regeneration that might so easily spring from the construction or repair of roads, bridges, caravanserais, and other elementary public works, it can excite but one feeling to see all this impotent wealth piled up […] which should serve to populate entire districts and to enrich great communities. […] Patriotism need not be so very difficult an attribute in royalty, when it is able to stop short of the treasure-house and the money-bags.
Another noteworthy figure, who wrote about the Royal Museum, is Gertrude Margaret Lowthian Bell (1868–1926). She stayed in Iran from 1892 to 1893. What she shares with Feuvrier and Curzon is the opinion that the Royal Museum lacked a clear strategy for selecting artefacts. She repeats that the museum represents an amalgam of objects of different kinds that have caught the king’s attention without necessarily having an aesthetic or intrinsic value:
We were half prepared for the fairy treasures […] With dazzled eyes we turned to one of the alcoves, and fell to examining the contents of the shelves. […] Under glass cases lay the diadems of former kings […] masses of unstrung pearls; costly and hideous toys, remarkable only for their extraordinary value. A globe, for instance, supported by an unbroken column of diamonds, whose seas were made of great flat emeralds, and whose continents of rubies and sapphires […] among the jewels and the enamel there were some objects which raised a ripple of laughter in the midst of our admiration. The royal owner of the treasure-house, doubtless anxious to show that he considered no less the well-being of the inward than the adornment of the outward man, had filled some of his upper shelves with little bottles of […] pills! Yes […] quack remedies which the Shah had collected on his Western travels, had brought home and placed among his treasures. After this discovery we were not surprised to find […] some of the priceless cloisonné bowls were filled with tooth-brushes […] Heaven knows by what fortunate combination of circumstances he finds those treasures still intact, for they seemed to us very insufficiently guarded, unless the tutelary efreet watches over them. […] We were next taken to see the world-famous Peacock Throne […] A year ago this throne had been the centre of a hideous story of cupidity and palace intrigue […] We passed on into a long succession of charming rooms with low, painted ceilings, walls covered with a mosaic of looking-glass, and windows facing the smiling garden. Execrable copies of the very worst European pictures adorned them […] Here and there a wonderful carpet lent its soft glow to the rooms, but for the most part the floors were covered with coarse productions of European looms – those flaming roses, and vulgar, staring patterns, which exercise an unfortunate attraction over the debased Oriental taste of to-day (Bell Reference Bell1928: 89–94).
In addition to these major descriptions through Western lenses, the museum has been mentioned by a few others as well, even during the reign of Naser al-Din Shah’s successors. For instance, Albert Houtum-Schindler (1846–1916) – an engineer in the Indo-European Telegraph Department who joined the Iranian telegraph service as inspector-general (Gurney Reference Gurney2017: 541) – writes in his travelogue about the ancient artefacts discovered from Tepe Hesar near Damghan, and the role that a museum could play in showcasing and preserving them. He reports that three seals, retrieved from the site, were preserved in the king’s museum. He also points out that there were numerous ancient mounds across Iran which would yield a great number of artefacts, and therefore, the museum was a necessity to preserve all of these riches. Otherwise, “it would be a shame to remove all these ancient artefacts from the country. It would be better if everything like bricks, seals, and so forth were preserved in the king’s museum” (Houtum-Schindler Reference Houtum-Schindler and Roshani1977: 207).
Moreover, in 1880, a number of decorated pottery artefacts were discovered in Damghan, according to Louis Vanden Berghe (Reference Vanden Berghe1959: 10), some of which were transferred to Ahmad Shah’s (r. 1909–25) museum in Tehran, while others found their way to the Louvre, the Kensington Museum, and the British Museum. This note shows that the Royal Museum was still in place during the reign of Ahmad Shah, the last Qajar king.
Discussion and conclusion
Enlightenment ideas had already been introduced to Iranian intellectuals through the writings of European authors from the early nineteenth century (Ekhtiar Reference Ekhtiar2001: 153). Compared to his predecessors, during the reign of Naser al-Din Shah, more cultural, technical, military, and administrative innovations were introduced to Iran through the employment of Western specialists and the educational courses offered at Dar al-Fonun (Scarce Reference Scarce2001: 111–2). Moreover, the Iranians who travelled to Europe became familiar with new scientific, social, economic, political, and military ideas. In the 1870s, Sepahsalar encouraged the king to make a journey to Europe, hoping that this visit to Western countries would incline him to abandon some prejudiced social views that prevented development in the country, and consequently bring about modernization in Iran. He was the first Iranian king who travelled to the West, at the age of 41.
He visited numerous museums across Europe. Attentive to detail, he gained knowledge of museums. More often than not, he provides descriptions of the museums’ collections as well as the history of the buildings and of certain objects or collections. Upon his return, he established two museums in Tehran, one dedicated to the royal jewels and his collection, and the other to natural history. However, these museums were not public as visiting them required the king’s permission.Footnote 15 The jewels were on display until 1891/2 when the Peacock Throne became the target of theft.Footnote 16 Therefore, the jewels and precious items were relocated to be kept in safes, and crystals and porcelain objects replaced them in the museum (Zoka Reference Zoka1970: 144).
Indeed, what Naser al-Din Shah initiated at the Golestan Palace was a combination of the tradition of collecting artefacts and new museological and museographical concepts of the west. A historical example is the Chini Khāne – which served also as a place for scholarship – in Ardebil, and probably other similar complexes throughout Iran of which the king might have known. Although the museums he established suffered from limited scope, restricted public access and ill-defined categorization of artefacts, the Shah’s notes reveal that he had acquired a good knowledge of the museum during his European tours. His diaries underline that:
• Museums could be private or public.
• Various institutes, like libraries, could possess and publicly display museum objects.
• Museums could fall under various categories based on their collections (e.g. natural science, art).
• Collections could include a wide variety of objects, from ancient artefacts to crown jewels to old and new paintings, as well as personal belongings.
• The museum could be built adjacent to other centres, e.g. zoos, to serve various purposes more effectively, such as entertainment and research.
• While new museum buildings could be constructed, old buildings, such as palaces, castles, and historic houses, could be converted into museums.
• Museums needed directors, curators, and administrative staff to remain operational.
• Museum objects could be replicas, whose originals could not be displayed for various reasons.
• The museum was a place for obtaining information, and this information could be disseminated in more than one way; e.g. as written labels or verbally by curators.
• It was a dynamic institution and over time, it might require a more spacious building, or expand its collection by purchasing new items.
• It could serve as a place for learning, e.g. by artists copying works of masters, and likewise, it could be a place for producing arts, or even medicines.
• It was a place not only for learning about the past, but also about other peoples, about nature, science, and industrial advances.
• It would need financial support for maintenance and enriching its collections.
• The museum could be a place to impress others, without uttering a word, by showcasing power in terms of effective political connections, war strategies, state-of-the-art technological advances, artistic traits, and the richness of one’s history.
• Museums of various sizes and different collections could be established in other cities across the country, and not only in the capital.
• Its collection might consist of objects or specimens that might be deemed ordinary and not necessarily rare, expensive, or ancient; e.g. various stones, plant and animal specimens.
• The museum, like any other treasure, would need protection against theft.
These observations highlight conceptual, technical, and social concerns and restraints that museums have to deal with.
Not only was Naser al-Din Shah aware of the public museums in Europe, but also of the growing interest in archaeological surveys in Iran conducted by Iranians and non-Iranians. For instance, during the 1870s, Farhad Mirza Motamed al-Dowleh, the Shah’s uncle and governor of Fars Province, hired a group of “workmen to clear and expose the Hall of the Hundred Columns at Persepolis while Forsat Husaini Shirazi surveyed and published the archaeological monuments of the province between 1894 and 1897” (Scarce Reference Scarce2007: 456). While archaeological surveys by Iranians may have been limited, the Europeans – especially the French – had already signed a few agreements focusing on Iran’s archaeological sites. The Site of Susa was first excavated by Colonel Fenwick Williams (1800–83) and William Kennett Loftus (1820–58), respectively in 1851 and 1852 (Gasche Reference Gasche2015; Paladre Reference Paladre2023: 282). However, at that time, the academic societies in England were mainly concerned with Mesopotamia. Therefore, Loftus and his team did not receive sufficient funds from Britain and were forced to abandon their work (see, for instance, Abdi Reference Abdi1994: 88; Nasiri-Moghaddam Reference Nasiri-Moghaddam, Devos and Werner2014: 122). In 1884, Marcel (1844–1920) and Jane Dieulafoy (1851–1916) started working at Susa. The Iranian court and the French agreed that Daniel’s tomb in Susa would be excluded from the excavations, all the gold and silver objects would belong to the Shah, and the rest of the finds would be divided equally between Iran and France. The Dieulafoys violated these terms and transported what they found to the Louvre. This act displeased the Shah, and he therefore terminated the agreement. On his third trip to Europe, the French tried to appease him and negotiated the terms of another contract, which was left unfulfilled due to the assassination of the Shah (see, for instance, Dieulafoy Reference Dieulafoy1888; Abdi Reference Abdi1994: 90; Nasiri-Moghaddam Reference Nasiri-Moghaddam, Devos and Werner2014: 122–3; Paladre Reference Paladre2023). But even visiting the Iranian objects at the Louvre did not prompt the Shah to establish a public museum focusing on ancient monuments and artefacts in Iran. The Shah’s knowledge of Europeans’ interest in Iranian archaeology, as well as potential for a proper museum, is not limited to the Dieulafoys’ work at Susa. His memoirs make it clear that he was also informed of other cases. He writes that “We were accompanied by the steward […] Thirty years ago, this man was the military attaché of the Prussian embassy, sent to Iran by Guillaume the Great. He went to Shiraz with the ambassador to visit the Persepolis. The ambassador passed away there and was buried in Shiraz” (Third Diary, I: 213). Moreover, visiting an expo in Paris, he explains that a European, whose name is missing from the original account, secured the king’s permission to exhibit Iranian items. Lemaire and RichardFootnote 17 joined this unnamed person. Richard, who had spent the last 40 years in Iran, amassed a collection of objects – old tiles from shrines, fragmentary tiles found in Ray, old coins and paintings, etc. – either bought from dealers or given to him by people for free. “He paid not more than 1,000 tomans for finding and collecting all these things, now an English person has bought them for 8,000 liras equivalent to 30,000 tomans from Richard for the London Museum” (Third Diary, II: 203).Footnote 18
Although he has left us long accounts of zoological gardens and natural history museums in Europe, there is hardly any mention of his own natural history collection among the surviving notes. While he addresses several benefits gained from studying such collections (“the advancement of knowledge, the increase of observation, and the display to the people of God’s power in His wondrous works of creation” (First Diary, 265)), he only managed to create a small private collection and a zoo intended to entertain royalty. At the same time, such museums were becoming involved in topical Darwinian debates, particularly in the West (see, for instance, Bennett Reference Bennett1995: 78).Footnote 19 Surprisingly, the Iranians first became familiar with Darwin’s theory during the reign of Naser al-Din Shah; however, Darwinism, with a negative connotation associating it with materialism, was harshly confronted mainly by Muslim theologians (see Masoumi Reference Masoumi2023).
Naser al-Din Shah’s personality has frequently been discussed by historians of the Qajar period. He was often styled the “Pivot of the Universe” – an epithet that recognized him as the centre of the universe. This attitude was not only manifest in his being fawned on, but is also verbalized when it comes to expressing knowledge of various subjects. Vising the Louvre for the third time, he notes:
The Louvre itself, along with its treasures, is famous and everybody knows about it, and there is no need for elaboration (Third Diary, II: 197).
But who is this “everybody” for the Shah? The majority of people in Iran at the time were dealing with poverty and famine, and the very few who knew about the Louvre belonged to the upper classes, mainly Iranian students in Europe and emissaries. His main purpose in visiting the Louvre during his third tour was to see the artefacts excavated at Susa – the very artefacts that were transported to France illegally. The Shah and his court were inept at preventing it; as if it were a soothing self-prescription for the Shah to emphasize that what was taken out of his country is now housed in a reputable institution.
The Royal Museum in the Golestan Palace, with all its shortcomings and the European contempt for it, remained the sole museum in Iran for years.Footnote 20 Although the Shah established the museum, it was Etemad al-Saltaneh who introduced it – not quite non-academically – to the public through his diaries, books, and newspapers. It remained an “Aladdin’s palace” for the majority of people – even the literate stratum – as descriptions and even seeing images can never match the experience of visiting the museum. In fact, it was not until 1916 that the first public museum – the National Museum of Iran (aka the Museum of Education (Muze-ye Maʽāref)) – was established in Dar al-Fonun during the ministerial term of Morteza Khan Momtaz al-Molk (d. 1925). Designed as an educational resource and exhibition space for a limited number of artefacts, the National Museum marked the beginning of a new era of museology and museography in Iran. Initially, this museum did not hold much significance due to the limited number of artefacts it possessed; however, it gradually gained considerable importance especially during the ministry of Ali Asghar Hekmat (1892–1980). Following the establishment of the National Museum, a catalogue containing information about the museum’s artefacts was published (Nezām-nāmeh va kātālog-e Muze-ye Melli Iran 1916). In addition to providing information about the showcased objects, this catalogue included an introduction about the importance of museums. It also invited the general public, as well as the nobility, merchants, and craftsmen, to participate in enriching the collection of the National Museum by donating artefacts as part of their national duty (Nafisi Reference Nafisi2003: 10–11; Jahangirfar Reference Jahangirfar2013: 26–27). Afterwards, more museums emerged across the country. The development of museums accelerated with the rise of Reza Shah Pahlavi (1878–1944), particularly after his coronation in 1926. During this period, the number of museums increased steadily, including archaeological museums and specialized museums such as the Rhases Serum Production Museum, founded in 1924, and the Geological Museum, established by members of the Geological Faculty at the University of Tehran in the late 1940s. Another impetus for museum-related activities was the foundation of the Shahbanou Farah Pahlavi Bureau in Tehran, which supported educational, artistic, and cultural activities. This bureau established six museums in Tehran and Khorramabad, focusing on arts of pre-Islamic, Islamic and contemporary periods (Pahlavi Reference Pahlavi2003: 243).
The jewels housed in the Royal Museum became part of the national treasury. In 1943, this collection was moved to the National Bank of Iran (now Central Bank), but since this space was too small, another chamber was built in 1955 to protect the collection. The latter opened in early 1960; it is still in place and can be visited by the general public (Bayani Reference Bayani1969: 127–32; Jellicoe Reference Jellicoe and Yarshater1993: 429; Saremi, et al. Reference Saremi, Farahani and Amani1993: 130).
