Introduction
Kaplan et al. (Reference Kaplan, Aitken, Allan, Alliger, Ballard and Zacher2025) discuss the idea that outside the 35+ hours spent working, people engage in other activities, such as caregiving and volunteering; however, many of these activities resemble work for much of the population and are typically unpaid. Although we agree with Kaplan et al. (Reference Kaplan, Aitken, Allan, Alliger, Ballard and Zacher2025) that many people engage in paid labor during most of their awake time, the authors do not discuss the idea that many in the population, particularly women, spend much of their leisure time working in unpaid family caregiving roles. This leads us to the question: How do gender roles fit into Keynes’ predictions of work and leisure?
In this commentary, we discuss how Keynes’ predictions about technological advancement do not consider women’s lived experiences, particularly in the family caregiving domain. We refer to family caregivers as people who tend to the needs of origin or chosen family members who need help supporting themselves (e.g., dependent children, elder care; John Hopkins Medicine, n.d.). Although technological advancements in family caregiving have significantly progressed over time, there are still widespread gender disparities in the division of labor (particularly when family caregiving), which result in gender differences in quality of leisure and identity conflict. By discussing Keynes’ predictions in the family caregiving domain, we argue that even in an ideal world where people work fewer hours, work will not automatically disappear for those who tend to take on caregiving roles (typically women).
Keynes’ predictions and care technologies
As the authors outlined, Keynes’ predictions were based on industries such as agriculture, transportation, communication, and electricity. Keynes and the authors did not mention the possibility of technological advancements in the family caregiving domain, such as artificial intelligence (AI) or digital platform technologies that are intended to support psychological well-being and reduce social isolation (Lindeman et al., Reference Lindeman, Kim, Gladstone and Apesoa-Varano2020). Although recent technological developments in child-rearing and elder care are promising, personal events like pregnancy and birth are romanticized in some cultures and the delegation of family caregiving labor to AI and assistive technologies is relatively taboo (MacLeavy, Reference MacLeavy2021). Further, there is an equity component (e.g., economic barriers) that may disproportionately impact caregivers of underrepresented identities by limiting their access to these specific technologies. As a result of not reaching Keynes’ predictions, particularly in the family caregiving sector, women (specifically those with family caregiving responsibilities) must grapple with changes to the quality of leisure and personal identity due to persistent inequalities in the division of hours put toward unpaid work.
Quality of leisure
The United States (U.S.) is the only country among 41 nations that does not mandate paid parental leave (Fluchtmann, Reference Fluchtmann2023). The lack of dependent care policies amplifies inequalities in the division of labor and results in decreased quality of women’s leisure time, especially for low-wage and precarious workers. For example, across 23 countries, Yerkes et al. (Reference Yerkes, Roeterts and Baxter2020) Reference Yerkes, Roeterts and Baxterfound that in countries with limited childcare coverage and paternity leave, women’s leisure quality was significantly lower than men’s. By contrast, the gender gap in leisure quality was lower in more egalitarian countries, and in some countries, the effect was reversed with women having higher quality leisure time. These effects are also found across cultures. Giurge et al. (Reference Giurge, Whillans and Yemiscigil2021) examined gender differences in how time was spent during the COVID-19 pandemic in American, Canadian, Danish, Brazilian, and Spanish samples and found that women (especially mothers) spent more time on tasks such as childcare and household chores, which resulted in lower levels of happiness compared to men.
Taken together, these findings demonstrate that although people engage in unpaid work (e.g., chores, family caregiving) outside designated working hours, women are more likely to take on most of this labor, subsequently reducing the quality of leisure experiences. The inclusion of gender roles in Keynes’ predictions forces scholars to not just focus on how leisure time is filled, but also to consider how factors like division of labor inequalities and the current state of technological advancements impact the quality of leisure time.
Identity conflict during leisure
Not only may women’s physical caregiving and household responsibilities impact the frequency and quality of leisure time, but women may also experience greater psychological dissonance among their role as mother, their evolving identity, and work responsibilities. Many new mothers experience a shift in their identity, as described by one mother: “then you’re all of a sudden a mother, it’s such a strange feeling and so natural at the same time” (Hennekam et al., Reference Hennekam, Syed, Ali and Dumazert2019, p. 922). Even when women successfully navigate the demands of work and family life, they may still experience maternal guilt and shame when they pursue leisure time. These negative feelings, which are often referred to as “motherhood myth,” may result from societal and cultural expectations, comparison to other mothers, and mothers not meeting their own expectations (Constantinou et al., Reference Constantinou, Varela and Buckby2021; Liss et al., Reference Liss, Schiffrin and Rizzo2012).
When it comes to leisure time specifically, the multitude of roles, responsibilities, and pressures can result in mothers experiencing intense internal conflict between wanting to take time for themselves and their needs, and tending to the needs of their children (LeBeau, Reference LeBeau2013). Although mothers may recognize the importance of leisure time, it is often an afterthought to these caretaking, household, and working roles, leading many mothers to not fully enjoy leisure time until their children are independent (Bialeschki & Michener, Reference Bialeschki and Michener1994). For these reasons, women (especially mothers of younger, dependent children) and those high in caregiving ambition (i.e., one’s preferences for caregiving; Bear, Reference Bear2019) may experience work–family conflict and additional barriers to accessing the type of quality leisure time described by Keynes. Again, by asking how gender roles fit into Keynes’ predictions, the question shifts from how people will fill their leisure time to how sociocultural expectations and social comparisons may impact the quality of leisure time for women.
A way forward
In practice, organizations and governing bodies can provide additional support for women. Specifically, organizations can better support mothers and family caregivers in the workplace through the implementation of family-friendly work policies (e.g., parental leave) and having role models (e.g., seeing other mothers succeed at the organization; Hennekam et al., Reference Hennekam, Syed, Ali and Dumazert2019; Ladge & Greenberg, Reference Ladge and Greenberg2015). Furthermore, public policies can provide additional support to family caregivers, such as family leave insurance programs, which provide wage replacements for employees who leave to care for a new child or ill family members (Appelbaum & Milkman, Reference Appelbaum and Milkman2011; Gault et al., Reference Gault, Hartmann, Hegewisch, Milli and Reichlin2014). Such practices may help alleviate work–family conflict, particularly for women, which may have implications for their leisure time. We are aware that these types of recommendations have been discussed extensively in previous literature (e.g., Collins, Reference Collins2021; Frye & Breaugh, Reference Frye and Breaugh2004; Garg & Agrawal, Reference Garg and Agrawal2020), but we reinforce the continued need for organizations to step up and better support their employees who are family caregivers.
Future work can also examine if Keynes’ predictions are valid when considering changes in gender roles and division of labor over time. Despite progress in some gender role stereotypes since Keynes’ predictions in the U.S. (e.g., Eagly, Reference Eagly2018; Eagly et al., Reference Eagly, Nater, Miller, Kaufmann and Sczesny2020), there is still a persistent gender gap in the division of household labor. Thus, although there are significant shifts in the amount of time men spend on household labor and childcare over time (Brenan, Reference Brenan2020), men still experience more leisure time compared to women (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2023). Future research should continue to explore how gender roles and stereotypes shape inequalities in the division of household labor and quality leisure over time for both men and women. For example, achieving higher equality in household work and childcare responsibilities may increase perceptions of quality leisure time for women but decrease perceptions among men. Further, there is an opportunity for researchers to gain insights about the division of labor and leisure time in nonwestern cultures with differing gender norms (Kim & Cheung, Reference Kim and Cheung2019).
We also recommend researchers consider approaches that examine the role of gender when developing technology to support the quality of leisure time. For example, technology assessment tools can guide the development of new, socially responsible technologies that benefit family caregivers by carefully considering their needs, preferences, and barriers to use, while also assessing gaps where technology can fit into family caregivers’ lives and routines (Xiong, Reference Xiong2021). Industrial-Organizational (I-O) psychologists can collaborate with technology developers to examine the effects of technological advancements on gender differences in leisure quality. Finally, researchers can investigate how family caregiving technologies, particularly those designed for mothers, impact the psychological dissonance between their role as mothers and paid labor responsibilities.
Conclusion
We articulate a need to consider gender roles when discussing Keynes’ predictions about the future of work and leisure. Technological advancements in the family caregiving domain have yet to become autonomous, allowing people, particularly women, to spend more time on leisure. As a result, women (especially mothers and caregivers) may face additional barriers that must be considered to achieve greater equality in leisure. We hope that our commentary entices I-O psychologists on both sides of the science–practitioner model to think more broadly about the role of privilege and gender roles when discussing the past, present, and future of work and leisure.
