2.1. Numerical methods

Equations (2.1), (2.2), (2.5) and (2.11) are integrated in time with the finite difference solver ‘NGA’ on a homogeneous Cartesian grid (Desjardins et al. Reference Desjardins, Blanquart, Balarac and Pitsch2008). The convective and viscous terms in the momentum equation and the diffusive terms in the scalar equations are discretized with second-order centred finite difference formulas on a staggered grid. The third-order weighted essentially non-oscillatory scheme (Liu, Osher & Chan Reference Liu, Osher and Chan1994) is used for the convective terms in the scalar transport equations. Mass conservation is enforced by solving a Poisson equation for the hydrodynamic pressure ${\rm \pi}$ instead of the continuity equation. The discrete form of the pressure equation is obtained with centred second-order finite difference formulas.

The advancement in time of the governing equations follows a splitting approach (Pierce Reference Pierce2001). The momentum and pressure equations are coupled with the classic pressure-correction method (Chorin Reference Chorin1968). The momentum equation is integrated in time with a semi-implicit method featuring the explicit second-order Adams–Bashforth method for the convective terms and the implicit Crank–Nicolson method for the linear viscous terms (Kim & Moin Reference Kim and Moin1985). The linear system ensuing from the viscous terms is solved in factored form with the alternating direction implicit (ADI) method (Peaceman & Rachford Reference Peaceman and Rachford1955). The time advancement of the temperature and mass fractions is performed with a first-order Lie splitting approach, whereby the integration of the convective and diffusive terms is performed first for each scalar field independently and that of the reactive source terms is handled at each grid point next. The temporal integration of the convective and diffusive terms is semi-implicit with the convective terms treated explicitly and the linear diffusive terms with the implicit Crank–Nicolson method and ADI factorization. The integration of the reactive source terms is performed pointwise with adaptive backward differentiation formula methods as implemented in the CVODE solver for systems of ordinary differential equations (Hindmarsh et al. Reference Hindmarsh, Brown, Grant, Lee, Serban, Shumaker and Woodward2005).

The variable coefficients pressure equation is solved with the library HYPRE (Falgout, Jones & Yang Reference Falgout, Jones and Yang2006) using the preconditioned conjugate gradient iterative solver coupled with the parallel alternating semi-coarsening multi-grid V-cycle preconditioner. All governing equations are coupled together with an outer iteration loop and convergence is found to be adequate after two iterations (Pierce Reference Pierce2001).

The grid is homogeneous and isotropic with spacing $\varDelta = 20\ \mathrm {\mu }\textrm {m}$ and the time step size is constant at ${\rm \Delta} t = 0.2\ \mathrm {\mu }\textrm {s}$. The spatial and temporal resolutions are adequate, since $\eta /\varDelta \geqslant 0.5$ and $\tau _{\eta }/{\rm \Delta} t \geqslant 20$, where $\eta$ and $\tau _{\eta }$ are the Kolmogorov length and time scale, respectively. Moreover, $\delta _L/\varDelta \geqslant 6$, where $\delta _L$ is the thermal thickness of the flame, as defined later in § 3. Extensive numerical tests to confirm adequate spatial resolution for the reactive fronts were carried out for turbulent premixed jet flames (Luca et al. Reference Luca, Attili, Lo Schiavo, Creta and Bisetti2018b) and are not repeated here.

3.1. Initial conditions and turbulence decay

The initial homogeneous isotropic turbulence (HIT) is generated as follows. First, preliminary HIT simulations at the target ${Re}_{\lambda }$ are performed with the linear forcing scheme of Rosales & Meneveau (Reference Rosales and Meneveau2005). Second, the velocity and dimensions are scaled to obtain the desired values of $u'$ and $l$ and several independent realizations of the velocity field are patched together into a larger domain. The motivation for patching boxes of homogeneous isotropic turbulence, rather than simulating fluid flow in the larger box, is due to a well-known outcome of the forcing scheme, i.e. when a statistically stationary state is attained, the integral scale $l$ is approximately 20 % of the side of the cubic domain. Discontinuities in the velocity field across patches disappeared upon advancing the state over $2\tau _{\eta }$.

This patching strategy does not compromise the evolution of turbulence during decay as shown by previous studies (Albin Reference Albin2010; Albin & D'Angelo Reference Albin and D'Angelo2012) and all turbulence statistics are consistent with the theory of decaying turbulence. In particular, the decay of the turbulent kinetic energy follows the power law (Batchelor & Townsend Reference Batchelor and Townsend1948a,Reference Batchelor and Townsendb; Sinhuber, Bodenschatz & Bewley Reference Sinhuber, Bodenschatz and Bewley2015),

(3.1)\begin{equation} k/k_0 = (1 + t/t_0)^{-n}, \end{equation}

where $t_0$ is the virtual origin, $k_0$ the turbulent kinetic energy at $t = 0$ and $n$ is the decay exponent.

Experimentally, $n$ is found to lie between 1 and 1.5. For decaying turbulence behind passive grids, Batchelor & Townsend (Reference Batchelor and Townsend1948a) find $n=1$, Comte-Bellot & Corrsin (Reference Comte-Bellot and Corrsin1971) report $1.16 \leqslant n \leqslant 1.37$, while Baines & Peterson (Reference Baines and Peterson1951) find a higher value of $n = 1.43$. Mohamed & Larue (Reference Mohamed and Larue1990) report that $n = 1.25$ fitted their data best. Here, instead of fitting the parameters in (3.1) directly, we use the expression for the eddy turnover time

(3.2)\begin{equation} \tau = k/\epsilon = t_0/n(1+t/t_0) = t_0/n + t/n, \end{equation}

so that $n$ and $t_0=n\tau _0$ are related to the slope and intercept of a least-squares fit to $\tau (t)$.

Figure 3(a) shows fits and power laws for $k/k_0$ and $\epsilon /\epsilon _0$. In all simulations we find $n = 1.55$, which is slightly higher than the values reported in the literature. This discrepancy may be due to the low Reynolds number of our configurations or the dependence of the exponent on geometry, which differs between grid generated turbulence and simulations of homogeneous isotropic decaying turbulence.

Figure 3.

Statistics of the decaying turbulence in the reactants. (a) Exponential decay of turbulent kinetic energy $k/k_0$ and its mean rate of dissipation $\epsilon /\epsilon _0$ versus $1+t/t_0$, where $t_0 = n\tau _0$. Lines represent power law expressions with $n=1.55$. (b) Evolution of ${Re}_{\lambda } = u'\lambda /\nu$. Lines represent decay in isothermal simulations, symbols represent data from reactive simulations: $R1$ ($\bigcirc$), $R2$ ($\square$), $R2a$ ($\Diamond$), $R3$ ($\triangle$) and $R3s$ ($\triangledown$).

Figure 3(b) compares the decay of Reynolds number in reactive and isothermal simulations from the same initial conditions. Statistics in the isothermal simulations are consistent with the power law decay, while in the reactive simulations, the changes in the background pressure and temperature cause minor deviations. While higher pressure and temperature lead to modifications to the density and the viscosity of the mixture, they are minor on the account of the fact that the maximum pressure rise is less than 20 % across all simulations. Further, the differences at the end of the simulations are due in part to a decreasing number of samples available for statistics, since the reactants occupy a region that decreases in volume as time progresses. We conclude that, apart from minor differences that become more apparent at later times, the presence of a propagating flame does not change the decay of turbulence.

Finally, we notice that the data for simulations $R3$ and $R3s$ prove that changes in the domain size do not have any noticeable effect on the statistics of decaying turbulence with or without a propagating flame.

4.1. Basic definitions

Within the scope of the present study, the flame surface corresponds to an isosurface of the reaction progress variable $C(\boldsymbol {x},t)=c^{*}$, which is defined as

(4.1)\begin{equation} C = 1 - \frac{Y_{{\textrm{O}_{2}}} - Y^{b}_{{\textrm{O}_{2}}}}{Y^{u}_{{\textrm{O}_{2}}} - Y^{b}_{{\textrm{O}_{2}}}}, \end{equation}

where $Y_{\textrm {O}_{2}}$ is the mass fraction of molecular oxygen and $Y^{u}_{{\textrm {O}_{2}}}$ and $Y^{b}_{{\textrm {O}_{2}}}$ are the mass fraction of oxygen in the reactants and products, respectively. We let the iso-level $c^{*} = 0.73$ define the flame surface. This particular value of the progress variable corresponds to the maximum value of the heat release rate, which is taken to mark the middle of the reaction zone. The normal to the flame surface is $\boldsymbol {n} = - \boldsymbol {\nabla } C/|\boldsymbol {\nabla } C|$, such that it points into the reactants. The flame propagates in the direction of the normal with a displacement speed $S$ relative to the local fluid velocity, given by (Pope Reference Pope1988; Chakraborty & Cant Reference Chakraborty and Cant2005)

(4.2)\begin{equation} S = \frac{1}{\lvert\boldsymbol{\nabla} C\rvert}\frac{\textrm{D} C}{\textrm{D}t} = \frac{1}{\lvert\boldsymbol{\nabla} C\rvert} \left( \frac{\partial C}{\partial t} + \boldsymbol{u}\boldsymbol{\cdot} \boldsymbol{\nabla} C\right). \end{equation}

The displacement speed is calculated from the progress variable field as follows. The temporal derivative $\partial C/\partial t$ is computed at the intermediate time $t_{1/2} = t_n + {\rm \Delta} t/2$ with a central finite difference formula based on two solutions at $t_n$ and $t_{n+1}=t_n+{\rm \Delta} t$. The velocity and scalar fields are interpolated linearly in time to $t_{1/2}$, the staggered velocity components are interpolated linearly onto the centred grid used for the progress variable scalar field, and a high-order central finite difference formula is used to evaluate the gradient of $C$.

The displacement speed is calculated based on the material derivative instead of the sum of the reactive and diffusive terms for the sake of computational convenience. The use of mixture-averaged diffusion models make the numerical evaluation of the diffusive term cumbersome. Also, the operator splitting approach coupled with the semi-implicit time advancement leads to the evaluation of the reactive and diffusive terms at different physical times, leading to ambiguity. Conversely, the solution field $C(\boldsymbol {x},t)$ is accurate to the method's order at each discrete time step.

4.2. The evolution of the turbulent premixed flames

Figure 4 illustrates the evolution of the turbulent spherical premixed flame during simulations $R1$, $R2$ and $R3$. The surface of the flame is visualized by the isosurface $C(\boldsymbol {x},t)=c^{*}$, which marks the thin reaction zone of the flame. The flame, which is initialized as a spherical kernel of products centred in the middle of the computational domain, propagates radially outwards into the premixed reactants. Movies of the propagating flames are provided in the supplementary material available at https://doi.org/10.1017/jfm.2020.784.

Figure 4.

Instantaneous flame surface shown at various dimensionless times for the simulations $R1$, $R2$ and $R3$. The Reynolds number increases from top to bottom, while the simulation time increases from left to right. Since $\tau _{\eta }^{0}$ is the same for all three simulations, the flame surface is compared at the same physical time across simulations. The physical dimension is the same for all three flames also.

It is apparent that the flame surface is wrinkled and folded by turbulence as the flame propagates. Most patches of the flame surface are flat or posses only a slight curvature. Regions of high curvature are much less prevalent and appear as sharp cylindrical folds, while cusps are infrequent. These qualitative observations are consistent with established topological features of the surface of turbulent premixed flames (Cifuentes et al. Reference Cifuentes, Dopazo, Martin and Jimenez2014). If the flames are compared at times when they are of similar size, the flame at the greatest value of the Reynolds number ($R3$) displays the highest density of folds and wrinkles. This is consistent with the qualitative interpretation that scale separation increases with increasing Reynolds number.

As reactants are converted into products inside the closed domain, the background pressure increases, leading to an increase in the reactants’ temperature $T_u$ also. The compression is isentropic. The simulations terminate when the mass fraction of burnt gases is less than 25 % of the total, such that the effect of periodic boundary conditions is negligible. This ensures a small change in $T_u$ (${\leqslant }3\,\%$) and $p$ (${\leqslant }20\,\%$) for all simulations. Such small changes in pressure and temperature lead to negligible changes in the laminar flame speed $S_L$ (${\leqslant }1\,\%$) and flame thickness $\delta _L$ (${\leqslant }10\,\%$).

4.3. Mean velocity field

The statistical analysis that follows assumes flow ergodicity in the polar and azimuthal coordinates, allowing to gather samples on spherical shells from one simulation. Indeed, one expects that the statistics of the flame surface are spherically symmetric far from the periodic boundaries. Verification of such symmetry is thus critical to the analysis and is explored here briefly for the mean velocity field.

Away from the flame brush, the density field is homogeneous and the general solution of the Reynolds averaged continuity equation for a closed domain reads as

(4.3)\begin{equation} \langle u_r\rangle = - \frac{1}{3\gamma} \frac{1}{p} \dfrac{\textrm{d}p}{\textrm{d}t} r + C_1 r^{-2}, \end{equation}

where $u_r = \boldsymbol {u}\boldsymbol {\cdot }\boldsymbol {e}_r$ is the radial component of velocity and $C_1$ is a constant. The first term in the equation above arises from the evolution of the reactants’ and products’ densities due to compression, which is found to be isentropic. In the region occupied by products, $C_1=0$ since $\langle u _r\rangle =0$ at $r=0$, yielding

(4.4)\begin{equation} \langle u_r\rangle = - \frac{1}{3 \gamma_b} \frac{1}{p} \dfrac{\textrm{d}p}{\textrm{d}t} r, \end{equation}

where $\gamma _b$ is the ratio of specific heats of the burnt gases. Equation (4.4) shows that $\langle u _r\rangle$ is negative ($\textrm {d}p/\textrm {d}t>0$) and varies linearly with $r$ in the burnt gases.

At the domain boundary, the velocity is zero due to periodicity, but the boundaries’ radial location depends on the polar and azimuthal coordinates on the account of the domain being a cube. Yet, since the mean radial velocity decreases as $1/r^{2}$, one expects the effect of geometry on the radial velocity to be negligible away from the boundary. Consequently, boundary conditions are imposed at an effective radial distance $R_L$, defined as the radius of a sphere with volume equal to that of the cubic domain

(4.5)\begin{equation} R_L = 2 (3/4{\rm \pi})^{1/3} L. \end{equation}

Then, the mean radial velocity component in the reactants reads as

(4.6)\begin{equation} \langle u_r\rangle = - \frac{ R_L }{3\gamma_u}\frac{1}{p}\dfrac{\textrm{d}p}{\textrm{d}t} \left[ \frac{r}{R_L} - \left( \frac{r}{R_L}\right)^{-2} \right], \end{equation}

where $\gamma _u$ is the ratio of specific heats of the reactants.

Figure 5 shows $\langle u _r\rangle$ at five instants in time during the $R2$ simulation. The mean is obtained by averaging over $\varTheta$ and $\varPhi$. The mean radial velocity matches the expressions in (4.6) and (4.6) closely at radial locations occupied by either products or reactants and away from the brush. In particular, on the reactants’ side, the theoretical expression for $\langle u _r\rangle$ is identical to the data from the simulation up to $r/L=1.0$ (or $r/R_L = 0.8$), which corresponds to the minimum distance between the centre and the faces of the cubic domain. We conclude that the mean flow retains spherical symmetry as if the computational domain were a spherical vessel with radius $R_L$.

Figure 5.

Reynolds averaged radial velocity $\langle u _r\rangle$ normalized by the initial turbulence intensity for simulation $R2$. Data at five times: $t/\tau _0=1.50$ ($\ast$), $2.23$ ($\bigcirc$), $3.35$ ($\square$), $4.10$ ($\triangle$) and $5.20$ ($\Diamond$). Thin lines represent the expressions in (4.4) and (4.6) evaluated with the instantaneous value of $p^{-1} \textrm {d}p/\textrm {d}t$. Data for $r/R_L \leqslant 0.8$ ($r/L \leqslant 1$), which corresponds to the minimum distance from the centre to the boundary.

The peak mean radial velocity within the brush increases at first. As the flame grows in size, boundary conditions cause the peak mean radial velocity to decrease due to confinement effects. The evolution of the peak mean radial velocity is qualitatively similar to that of the mean radial velocity at the leading edge of the brush, where (4.6) is applicable. While $1/p \, \textrm {d}p/\textrm {d}t$ increases continuously in time, the term inside the square brackets decreases as $R/R_L$ increases and the product of the two is non-monotonic giving rise to the behaviour in figure 5. This conclusion is supported further by the observation that the peak mean radial velocity increases continuously for case $R3$, whereas it shows a non-monotonic behaviour for case $R3s$, which has a domain of half the size (not shown).

In the remainder of this article, turbulent statistics are assumed to be spherically symmetric and statistics are gathered accordingly.

5.1. Probability density function of radial distance of the flame surface

The remainder of this paper is concerned with the mechanisms responsible for the evolution of the area ratio $A/A^{*}$ and its differences and similarities across simulations. Before presenting a model for the area ratio and its scaling, it is useful to associate a probability density function (PDF) to the distance of the flame surface, denoted by $\mathcal {P}_{\phi }$. Here $\phi$ is the random variable representing the radial distance of the flame surface from the origin. With this formalism, the mean flame radius $R$ and the thickness of the turbulent brush $\delta _T$ can be defined rigorously in terms of the moments of $\mathcal {P}_{\phi }$ and their governing equations be derived as shown later.

The expectation of the flame surface area inside a sphere of radius $\varphi$ is

(5.9)\begin{equation} A_{\varphi} = 4 {\rm \pi}\int_0^{\varphi} r^{2} \varSigma(r,t)\, \textrm{d}r, \end{equation}

so that the ratio $A_{\varphi }/A$ represents the probability $\mathbb {P}(\phi < \varphi )$ and describes the cumulative density function associated with $\mathcal {P}_{\phi }$. The PDF is obtained by differentiation with respect to the sample space variable $\varphi$,

(5.10)\begin{equation} \mathcal{P}_{\phi}(\phi = \varphi;t) = \textrm{d}(A_{\varphi}/A)/\textrm{d}\varphi = 4 {\rm \pi}A^{-1} \varphi^{2} \varSigma(r=\varphi,t), \end{equation}

with support $\varphi \in [0,\infty )$. The mean $\mu$ and standard deviation $\sigma$ of $\phi$ are the mean radial distance and a scaled flame brush thickness:

(5.11)\begin{equation} \mu = \langle\phi\rangle = \int_0^{\infty} \varphi \mathcal{P}_{\phi}(\varphi;t)\, \textrm{d}\varphi = 4 {\rm \pi}A^{-1} \int_0^{\infty} r^{3} \varSigma(r,t)\, \textrm{d}r \end{equation}

and

(5.12)\begin{equation} \sigma^{2} = \langle ( \phi -\langle\phi\rangle)^{2}\rangle = \int_0^{\infty} ( \varphi -\langle\phi\rangle)^{2} \mathcal{P}_{\phi}(\varphi;t)\, \textrm{d}\varphi = 4 {\rm \pi}A^{-1} \int_0^{\infty} (r - R)^{2} r^{2} \varSigma(r,t)\, \textrm{d}r. \end{equation}

The flame radius and the turbulent brush thickness are defined based on $\mu$ and $\sigma$ as $R = \mu$ and $\delta _T = \sqrt {2 {\rm \pi}} \sigma$, respectively. The proportionality constant $\sqrt {2 {\rm \pi}}$ is included in the definition of $\delta _T$ for consistency with the common definition of the flame brush thickness based on the mean gradient of the progress variable

(5.13)\begin{equation} \delta_T = \sqrt{2 {\rm \pi}} \sigma \approx 1/max\{ \textrm{d}\langle C\rangle/\textrm{d}r \}, \end{equation}

where $\langle C \rangle (r,t)$ is the mean progress variable and $\textrm {d}\langle C \rangle /\textrm {d}r$ its gradient under the hypothesis of spherical symmetry. The two definitions of the brush thickness are equivalent under the assumption that $\mathcal {P}_{\phi }$ is normally distributed around the mean (e.g. see Chapter 4 in Lipatnikov Reference Lipatnikov2012).

The evolution equation for $\mathcal {P}_{\phi }$ is derived starting from that for the flame surface density function. The flame surface density function $\varSigma$ evolves according to (Pope Reference Pope1988; Trouvé & Poinsot Reference Trouvé and Poinsot1994; Vervisch et al. Reference Vervisch, Bidaux, Bray and Kollmann1995)

(5.14)\begin{equation} \dfrac{\partial \varSigma}{\partial t} + \frac{1}{r^{2}}\frac{\partial }{\partial r} (\langle u_r + S n_r\rangle_w \varSigma ) = \langle K\rangle_w \varSigma, \end{equation}

where suitable simplifications due to spherical symmetry are made. Here, $S$ is the displacement speed as defined in (4.2) and $u_r$ and $n_r$ represent the radial components of the velocity and normal vectors, respectively. The operator $\langle \cdot \rangle _w$ denotes the gradient weighted or surface average (Pope Reference Pope1988).

The flame stretch $K = a - 2S\kappa$ contains two contributions: the tangential strain rate $a = - \boldsymbol {n}^{T} \boldsymbol {\nabla } \boldsymbol {u} \boldsymbol {n} + \boldsymbol {\nabla } \boldsymbol {\cdot } \boldsymbol {u}$ and the curvature-propagation term $- 2 S \kappa = S \boldsymbol {\nabla } \boldsymbol {\cdot } \boldsymbol {n}$. The tangential strain rate depends only on the velocity field $\boldsymbol {u}$ and the orientation of the velocity gradient tensor $\boldsymbol {\nabla } \boldsymbol {u}$ with respect to the flame normal $\boldsymbol {n}$. The curvature term is non-zero only for surfaces that propagate ($S\neq 0$) in the presence of curvature ($\kappa \neq 0$). In the case of a material surface, $K=a$ and surface stretch is due to tangential strain alone.

The rate of change of $A$ is solely due to the stretch term of (5.14), as the volumetric integrals of the convective and propagation terms on the left-hand side are zero. The logarithmic time rate of change of the area $= (1/A) \,\textrm {d}A/\textrm {d}t$ is therefore called the global stretch and denoted by $K_G$.

In light of (5.10), the rate of change of $\mathcal {P}_{\phi }$ reads as

(5.15)\begin{equation} \partial\mathcal{P}_{\phi}/\partial t = \left(4{\rm \pi} r^{2}/A\right) \left\{ \partial \varSigma/\partial t - (\varSigma/A) \, \textrm{d}A/\textrm{d}t\right\}. \end{equation}

Substituting $\partial \varSigma /\partial t$ from (5.14) into (5.15) and simplifying, we obtain the evolution equation for the PDF

(5.16)\begin{equation} \partial \mathcal{P}_{\phi}/\partial t = -\partial/\partial r \left\{ \langle u_r + S n_r\rangle_w \mathcal{P}_{\phi}\right\} + (\langle K\rangle_w - K_G) \mathcal{P}_{\phi}. \end{equation}

5.2. Characterization of $\mathcal {P}_{\phi }$ and $\varSigma$

The mathematical framework presented in § 5.1 demonstrates that the mean area $A$, mean radius $R$, turbulent flame brush $\delta _T$ and area ratio $\chi$ are related functionally to the surface density function $\varSigma$. Further, (5.10) points to an equivalence between $\varSigma$ and the probability density function $\mathcal {P}_{\phi }$.

The temporal evolution of the flame radius and the turbulent flame brush thickness is shown in figure 7.

Figure 7.

Evolution of (a) mean flame radius and (b) flame brush thickness for various simulations. The mean flame radius is normalized by the initial kernel size $R_0$, while the brush thickness is normalized with the initial integral length scale $l_0$: $R1$ ($\bigcirc$), $R2$ ($\square$), $R2a$ ($\Diamond$), $R3$ ($\triangle$) and $R3s$ ($\triangledown$). Error bars shown for $R1$ simulation represent the sample variance based on four realizations.

The onset of a linear growth phase occurs at $t/\tau _0 \approx 1$ for all configurations and the non-dimensional growth rate $R_0^{-1} \tau _0 \,\textrm {d}R/\textrm {d}t$ differs, being greatest for $R3$ and smallest for $R1$. The flame brush $\delta _T/l_0$ increases monotonically in time across simulations as shown in figure 7(b) and similar across simulations, which is a result of the scaling of the flame brush thickness with the integral length scale of the flow as discussed later in § 6.1.

The PDF $\mathcal {P}_{\phi }$ is closely approximated by a Gaussian distribution. This is demonstrated in figure 8, which shows $\mathcal {P}_{\phi }$ at four times for three simulations. Here we plot the PDF normalized by $\sigma$ and against $\vartheta$, a sample space variable of the normalized brush coordinate $\theta = (\phi -\mu )/\sigma$. It is apparent that $\sigma \mathcal {P}_{\phi }$ is well described by a standard normal distribution $\mathcal {N}(0,1)$, consistently with previous data reported in the literature for various flame configurations (Lipatnikov & Chomiak Reference Lipatnikov and Chomiak2002). The inset shows that the tails of the PDF are also well approximated by the normal distribution, although the comparison becomes less satisfactory for $|\vartheta |>2$, possibly due to statistical convergence.

Figure 8.

(a) Representative planar slices of the instantaneous flame surface for simulation $R2$ at $t/\tau _0 = 4.2$. Here $x_1\text {--}x_2$ denotes a quadrant of the Cartesian planes $x\text {--}y$, $y\text {--}z$ and $x\text {--}z$. The mean flame radius (thick red line) and several $C = c^{*}$ isocontours (thin black lines) are shown alongside the shaded region $r=R \pm \sigma$. Also shown in (b) and (c) is the $\sigma \mathcal {P}_{\phi }$ at four times for simulations $R1$ ($\bigcirc$), $R2$ ($\square$) and $R3$ ($\triangle$) with the standard normal distribution for comparison (thick black lines).

Figure 9 shows $\varSigma$ at select times for simulations $R1$, $R2$, $R3$ and $R2a$. The surface density function (SDF) is shown normalized by the initial thermal thickness $\delta _L^{0}$ and plotted versus $r/R_L$, where $R_L$ is the effective domain radius (see table 1). The SDF is transported radially outward, broadens, and its maximum value $\varSigma _m$ decreases with time. This behaviour is common across all cases. The broadening of $\varSigma$ is consistent with the increase in the flame brush and with experimental observations of spherical turbulent premixed flames evolving in freely decaying turbulence (Renou et al. Reference Renou, Mura, Samson and Boukhalfa2002; Fries et al. Reference Fries, Ochs, Saha, Ranjan and Menon2019). Since the area ratio $\chi$ is related to the volumetric integral of $\varSigma$, broadening appears to be closely related to the observed increase of $\chi$ in time. Yet, the peak of $\varSigma$ decreases in time, so that a more quantitative analysis is in order.

Figure 9.

Surface density function at select times for (a) $R1$, (b) $R2$, (c) $R3$ and (d) $R2a$. The normalized time $t/\tau _0$ is shown next to each profile. The surface density distribution broadens and the peak reduces as the time progresses. Symbols denote evaluation of $\varSigma$ using the definition directly, while solid lines show surface density estimation based on (5.10) and a normal distribution model for $\mathcal {P}_{\phi }$.

Using a Gaussian distribution as a model for $\mathcal {P}_{\phi }$, the surface density function is obtained according to (5.10) and shown in figure 9 also. The surface density function $\varSigma$, obtained assuming that $\mathcal {P}_{\phi }$ is a normal distribution, is compared to its direct evaluation from the gradient of the progress variable. The comparison is very satisfactory, indicating that the two methodologies are consistent and further validating our approach. Nonetheless, $\varSigma$ computed from conditional statistics displays residual statistical noise, and, therefore, we rely on the model to analyse the peak value $\varSigma _m$ of the surface density function.

5.3. Model for the area ratio

We begin by noting that the surface density function admits a local maximum at radial location $\hat {r}$, which is the root of the equation

(5.17)\begin{gather} \left. \frac{\partial \varSigma}{\partial r}\right|_{r=\hat{r}} = -2 \mathcal{P}_{\phi}(\hat{r})/\hat{r}^{3} + \mathcal{P}'_{\phi}(\hat{r})/\hat{r}^{2} = 0, \end{gather}

(5.18)\begin{gather}2 \mathcal{P}_{\phi}(\hat{r}) - \hat{r} \mathcal{P}'_{\phi}(\hat{r}) = 0, \end{gather}

where we let $\mathcal {P}'_{\phi }$ indicate the derivative with respect to $\varphi$. Based on (5.10), the maximum value attained by the surface density function is

(5.19)\begin{equation} \varSigma_m \equiv \varSigma(\hat{r},t) = (4 {\rm \pi})^{-1} A \frac{\mathcal{P}'_{\phi}(\hat{r})}{2\hat{r}} = (4 {\rm \pi})^{-1} A \frac{\mathcal{P}_{\phi}(\hat{r})}{\hat{r}^{2}}. \end{equation}

Substitution of (5.10) and (5.19) into (5.6) gives

(5.20a,b)\begin{equation} \chi = \varSigma_m \delta_T \beta; \quad \beta = \frac{1}{ \mathcal{P}_{\phi}(\hat{r}) \delta_T } \left( \frac{ \hat{r}}{R} \right)^{2}. \end{equation}

Here $\beta$ is a shape factor related solely to the functional form of $\mathcal {P}_{\phi }(\varphi;t)$. Equation (5.20a,b) illustrates that the area ratio $\chi$ is proportional to the product of the maximum value of the surface density function, the thickness of the flame brush and a shape factor.

As shown in figure 8, $\mathcal {P}_{\phi }(\varphi; t)$ is well approximated by a normal distribution. On the account that $\mathcal {P}_{\phi }$ is defined in $[0,\infty )$, a truncated normal distribution with parameters $\bar {\mu }$ and $\bar {\sigma }^{2}$ (Johnson, Kotz & Balakrishnan Reference Johnson, Kotz and Balakrishnan1994) is required formally, rather than a normal distribution with infinite support $\varphi \in (-\infty ,\infty )$. However, we find that for all simulations, $\bar {\mu } \geqslant 3 \bar {\sigma }$ (see figure 8), so that $\bar {\mu } \approx \mu$, $\bar {\sigma }^{2} \approx \sigma ^{2}$, and the normalization factor $Z=1-F(-\bar {\mu }/\bar {\sigma }) \approx 1$, where $F(z)$ is the cumulative distribution function of the standard normal distribution.

Thus, for all practical purposes, the truncated normal distribution and the underlying normal distribution are identical on the account of the negligible probability of $\phi$ taking negative values. For simplicity, we ignore the small differences arising from the truncated sample space at $\varphi = 0$ and model $\mathcal {P}_{\phi }$ as a normal distribution with parameters $\mu =R$ and $\sigma ^{2} = \delta _T^{2}/(2{\rm \pi} )$. This results in the following root of (5.18):

(5.21)\begin{equation} \hat{r} = 2 \mathcal{P}_{\phi}(\hat{r})/\mathcal{P}'_{\phi}(\hat{r}) = R \left(1 + \sqrt{1-8\alpha^{2}}\right)/2. \end{equation}

Here $\alpha = \sigma /\mu$ ($\alpha \leqslant 0.33$ for all times and simulations) is the relative standard deviation of the radial distance. Substituting (5.21) into (5.20b), the shape factor reads as

(5.22)\begin{equation} \beta = \beta(\alpha) = 0.25 (1 + \sqrt{1 - 8\alpha^{2}})^{2} \exp\left\{\alpha^{2} (\sqrt{1 - 8\alpha^{2}} -1)^{2}/8 \right\}. \end{equation}

Equation (5.22) indicates that the shape factor is a monotonic function of $\alpha$. For $\alpha \to 0$, $\beta \to 1$ and decreases as $\alpha$ increases. For all simulations and times, we find that $0.875 \leqslant \beta \leqslant 1$.

Together with the fact that $\beta \approx 1$, (5.20a) illustrates that the area ratio $\chi$ is equal to the product of the maximum value of the surface density function $\varSigma _m$ and the thickness of the flame brush $\delta _T$. The temporal evolution of these two quantities across simulations with varying Reynolds number is explored closely in the remainder of the paper.

6.1. Scaling of the turbulent flame brush thickness

As defined in (5.13), the flame brush thickness $\delta _T(t)$ is a statistical measure of the distance of the flame surface from its mean location. The brush thickness grows from zero as time progresses and turbulence wrinkles the flame (figure 7b).

Under rather stringent assumptions and important approximations, Taylor's theory of turbulent diffusion has been applied to the evolution of the flame brush thickness (Lipatnikov & Chomiak Reference Lipatnikov and Chomiak2002). First, the flame surface is assumed to evolve as a collection of infinitesimal material surface elements and the variance of the distance of the surface elements from their mean location is taken to represent the brush thickness. Second, turbulence is assumed to be homogeneous and isotropic, although not necessarily stationary. Under these assumptions, the rate of change of the variance of the distance is

(6.1)\begin{equation} \textrm{d} \sigma^{2}/\textrm{d}t = 2 u'(t) \int_0^{t} u'(p) f_L(p,t) \,\textrm{d}p, \end{equation}

where $f_L$ denotes the Lagrangian velocity autocorrelation function and $u'(t)$ is the turbulence intensity at time $t$. For stationary turbulence, (6.1) is integrated assuming that the autocorrelation function is exponential (Hinze Reference Hinze1975) to give

(6.2)\begin{equation} \sigma^{2}/l^{2} = 2 \tilde{t} \{ 1 - \tilde{t}^{-1} [ 1 - \exp (-\tilde{t})] \}, \end{equation}

where $\tilde {t}=t/\tau ^{{\dagger} }$ and $\tau ^{{\dagger} } = l/u'$ is a constant reference time scale. The short and long time behaviours described by (6.2) are $\sigma ^{2} \sim t^{2}$ for $t \ll \tau ^{{\dagger} }$ and $\sigma ^{2} \sim t$ for $t \gg \tau ^{{\dagger} }$, respectively.

The short time limit has been shown to explain reasonably well the early and near-field evolution of the brush for various experimental and numerical flame configurations, including spherically expanding flames and turbulent Bunsen flames (Lipatnikov & Chomiak Reference Lipatnikov and Chomiak2002). For spatially inhomogeneous turbulent flows with a dominant direction, a convective time related to distance is used in place of time. This model suggests that the flame brush thickness scales with large, energy-containing scales of turbulence, since the ratio $\sigma /l$ is a function of the normalized time $t/\tau ^{{\dagger} }$ alone.

Minor adjustments to (6.1) and (6.2) are required for spherical expanding flames in decaying turbulence. Firstly, the brush thickness is defined in terms of the variance of the radial distance, so that only the radial component of the velocity vector along the Lagrangian trajectories should be considered. Since the radial direction varies along a Lagrangian trajectory, the integrand includes an orientation factor also and reads as

(6.3)\begin{equation} \textrm{d} \sigma^{2}/\textrm{d}t = 2 u'(t) \int_0^{t} u'(p) f_L(p,t) \langle \cos \alpha_{p,t} \rangle\,\textrm{d}p, \end{equation}

where the orientation factor $\langle \cos \alpha _{p,t} \rangle$ is the expectation of $\alpha _{p,t}$, the angle between two position vectors on a Lagrangian trajectory at times $p$ and $t$. The derivation of (6.3) is presented in appendix B.

Since $\cos \alpha _{p,t} \leqslant 1$, (6.1) overestimates the rate of change of the brush thickness compared to (6.3). Nonetheless, the correction is small if the lateral movement on a Lagrangian trajectory during temporal intervals for which the velocity remains correlated is small compared to the radial distance of the material point. A comprehensive analysis of the orientation factor requires an investigation of Lagrangian statistics and is outside the scope of the present study. Thus, we interpret (6.1) as an upper bound on the rate of change of the brush thickness in spherically expanding flames as approximated by Taylor's theory of turbulent diffusion.

A second aspect is related to the fact that turbulence in not stationary, rather it decays in time. Batchelor & Townsend (Reference Batchelor, Townsend, Batchelor and Davies1956) postulated that the Lagrangian velocity autocorrelation in decaying isotropic turbulence is self-similar and argued that, if the decay of the turbulent kinetic energy follows a power law (see § 3.1), there exits a characteristic time scale $\tau _s$ for which $u(t) (1+t/t_0)^{-n/2}$ is a stationary random variable in the transformed time coordinate $s$, defined so that $\textrm {d}s = \textrm {d}t/\tau _s$. Batchelor & Townsend (Reference Batchelor, Townsend, Batchelor and Davies1956) suggested $\tau _s = t+t_0$, which was supported later by Huang & Leonard (Reference Huang and Leonard1995) based on a model spectrum of the Lagrangian velocity autocorrelation at high Reynolds numbers. Letting $s = \log (1+t/t_0)$ with $t_0=n\tau _0$, all length and velocity scales in decaying turbulence are exponential functions of $s$. Further, as shown by Huang & Leonard (Reference Huang and Leonard1995), the Lagrangian autocorrelation function depends on the lag between two transformed time coordinates, i.e. $f_L(t_1,t_2) = f_L(s_1-s_2)$. The methodology for the estimation of the parameters $t_0$ and $n$ was outlined in § 3.1.

Substituting the expressions for the turbulent kinetic energy (3.1) and eddy turnover time (3.2), the temporal evolution of $\delta _T^{2}$ reads as

(6.4)\begin{equation} \delta_T^{2}/l^{2} = (9 {\rm \pi}n^{2}) \int_0^{s} \textrm{d}p \, \int_0^{p} \textrm{d}q \, f_L(q-p) \exp\{(1-n/2)(p+q-2s)\}. \end{equation}

The factor in front of the integral in the above expression originates from the definition of the eddy turnover time $\tau = 3l/2u' = 3\tau ^{{\dagger} }/2$ and $\tau _s = n\tau$. Equation (6.4) suggests that $\delta _T/l = f(s)$ alone and that the instantaneous integral length scale of the flow $l$ is the obvious length to normalize the brush thickness $\delta _T$.

Figure 10 shows the temporal evolution of the normalized flame brush $\delta _T/l$ for all simulations alongside the theoretical prediction from (6.4). The expression for the Lagrangian autocorrelation function given in Huang & Leonard (Reference Huang and Leonard1995) was used to evaluate the integrals on the right-hand side of (6.4).

Figure 10.

Temporal evolution of the flame brush thickness. (a) Brush thickness normalized by the thermal thickness of the laminar flame, $\delta ^{0}_L$, versus time normalized by the initial eddy turnover time. (b) Normalized flame brush thickness $\delta _T/l$ versus the transformed time coordinate $s=\log (1+t/t_0)$, where $t_0=n\tau _0$. The solid line shows the expression in (6.4), derived for the dispersion of Lagrangian particles in freely decaying isotropic turbulence with a self-similar power law decay. Symbols identify data from different simulations: $R1$ ($\bigcirc$), $R2$ ($\square$), $R2a$ ($\Diamond$), $R3$ ($\triangle$) and $R3s$ ($\triangledown$).

Consistent with the observations in the literature, we report good agreement of the brush thickness with the theory of turbulent diffusion early on ($s < 0.2$ or $t/\tau _0 < 0.5$) and a near collapse across simulations. This agreement is rather remarkable considering that the flame surface is defined based on the isosurface of a reactive scalar and propagates in a variable density and variable properties flow, while Taylor's theory of turbulent diffusion applies to an ensemble of material points convected by an isothermal fluid. Nonetheless, the agreement is best at early times and deviations from theory are apparent later. More importantly, the evolution of $\delta _T/l$ appears to saturate towards a limit value, while theory predicts continuous growth even in decaying turbulence.

We briefly address the deviations from the turbulent diffusion theory through the evolution equation for the brush thickness, which is derived next. The evolution equation for the flame brush thickness is readily obtained by taking the second central moment of (5.16) and reads as

(6.5)\begin{equation} \dfrac{\textrm{d} \delta_T^{2}}{\textrm{d}t} = 4 {\rm \pi}\int_0^{\infty} \langle u_r + S n_r\rangle_w (r - R)\mathcal{P}_{\phi} \,\textrm{d}r + 2{\rm \pi} \int_0^{\infty} \langle K'\rangle_w (r - R)^{2} \mathcal{P}_{\phi} \,\textrm{d}r , \end{equation}

where $K'=K-K_G$ is the differential stretch rate. The first term on the right-hand side of (6.5) describes the effect of transport on the brush and consists of contributions by the mean radial velocity, velocity fluctuations and flame propagation.

We decompose the radial velocity as $u_r = \langle u _r\rangle + u_r'$, where $\langle u _r\rangle$ is the unconditional Reynolds average, so that $\langle u _r'\rangle _w$ is not zero, and the evolution equation is manipulated to read as

(6.6)\begin{align} \dfrac{\textrm{d} \delta_T}{\textrm{d}t} & = (2{\rm \pi}/\delta_T) \int_0^{\infty} \langle u'_r\rangle_w (r - R)\mathcal{P}_{\phi}\,\textrm{d}r + (2{\rm \pi}/\delta_T) \int_0^{\infty} \langle u_r\rangle (r - R)\mathcal{P}_{\phi}\,\textrm{d}r \nonumber\\ & \quad + (2{\rm \pi}/\delta_T) \int_0^{\infty} \langle S n_r\rangle_w (r - R)\mathcal{P}_{\phi}\,\textrm{d}r + ({\rm \pi}/\delta_T) \int_0^{\infty} \langle K'\rangle_w (r - R)^{2} \mathcal{P}_{\phi} \,\textrm{d}r. \end{align}

In the order in which they appear on the right-hand side of (6.6), the terms represent contributions from velocity fluctuations or turbulent transport (term I), transport due to mean radial velocity (term II) and flame propagation (term III), and differential stretch (term IV).

Figure 11 shows $\textrm {d}\delta _T/\textrm {d}t$ and the four terms on the right-hand side of (6.6). All terms are normalized by the initial turbulence intensity $u'_0$. The rate of change of $\delta _T$ is positive for all simulations, indicating that the brush grows throughout the evolution of the turbulent flame and the behaviour and contribution of each term is similar across simulations, once normalized by the initial turbulence intensity. As time progresses, $\textrm {d}\delta _T/\textrm {d}t$ approaches zero, indicating that the brush thickness reaches a limit value, consistent with the temporal evolution of $\delta _T$ in figure 7(b).

Figure 11.

Contributions of different mechanisms in (6.6) to the growth of the flame brush thickness: $\textrm {d}\delta _T/\textrm {d}t$ ——, turbulent transport (term I) — $\bigcirc$ —, mean convection and mean propagation (sum of terms II and III) —  $\cdot$  —, and differential stretch (term IV) — $\square$ —. All terms are normalized by the initial turbulence intensity $u'_0$. Data shown for (a) $R1$, (b) $R2$, (c) $R3$ and (d) $R2a$.

Early in the evolution, turbulent transport (term I) dominates and contributes to the growth of the flame brush. The contribution of term I decreases in magnitude as time progresses due to the decay of turbulence and associated decrease in the fluctuation $u'$. Throughout the simulations, differential stretch (term IV) is negative, slowing down the rate of growth of the brush. Its magnitude grows in absolute value as time progresses. The sum of terms II (mean velocity) and III (flame propagation) is positive, but of limited importance until much later in all simulations, when $u'$ is small.

This analysis demonstrates that the growth rate of the flame brush thickness in this configuration is controlled by the balance between two mechanisms: turbulent transport contributing to the growth of the brush and differential flame stretch impeding the growth. The turbulent flame brush approaches a constant thickness when the two contributions become equal in magnitude, but opposite in sign. We note that despite the deviations, the scaling of $\delta _T$ with $l$ is robust, as the evolution of $\delta _T/l$ is nearly the same across different simulations. A quantitative discussion on these mechanisms and their scaling is deferred to a later work.

6.2. Scaling of peak value of the surface density function

Next, we address the variation of the peak value of the surface density function across simulations with varying Reynolds number. The surface density function associated with the isosurface $C = c$ (Vervisch et al. Reference Vervisch, Bidaux, Bray and Kollmann1995) reads as

(6.7)\begin{equation} \varSigma(r,t; c) = \langle |\boldsymbol{\nabla} C| | C = c \rangle \mathcal{P}_C(c; r,t), \end{equation}

where $\mathcal {P}_C$ is the PDF of the progress variable $C$ and angular brackets denote ensemble averaging.

Figure 12(a) shows $\langle |\boldsymbol {\nabla } C| | C = c \rangle$ as a function of $c$ at early times ($t/\tau _0 = 0.75$) and towards the end ($t/\tau _0 = 5.25$) of simulation $R2$. The conditional mean of the gradient is very close to that found across the one-dimensional laminar flame, confirming that the turbulent flames belong to the thin flamelet regime (Peters Reference Peters2000). Furthermore, at each instant, the gradient is normalized by $\delta _L^{0}$ in order to highlight that the effect of pressure on the flame structure is minor as the peak value of the gradient changes by 10 % only. Figure 12(b) shows the radial variation of $\langle |\boldsymbol {\nabla } C| | C = c^{*} \rangle$ across the brush at $t/\tau _0 = 5.25$, indicating that the conditional gradient magnitude grows only very slightly across the brush and may be considered constant for all practical purposes.

Figure 12.

Conditional statistics of the gradient magnitude. Data from simulation $R2$. (a) Conditional mean gradient magnitude from DNS (blue and red lines), one-dimensional laminar flame (black lines) at two different times, normalized by the thermal thickness of the laminar flame $\delta _L^{0}$. Data shown at $t/\tau _0 = 0.75$ (blue line with open circles) and $t/\tau _0 = 5.25$ (red line with open squares). The error bars represent the conditional standard deviation. (b) Radial distribution of the conditional mean gradient magnitude ($C = c^{*}$) at $t/\tau _0=5.25$. Scatter of samples is represented with small solid circles. Gradients are multiplied by the laminar flame thermal thickness $\delta _L(t)$.

Thus, we conclude that the conditional gradient magnitude $\langle |\boldsymbol {\nabla } C| | C = c^{*} \rangle$ is independent of radial location $r$ and time $t$ also, so that any spatial and temporal dependence of the surface density function $\varSigma$ is due to $\mathcal {P}_C(c^{*}; r,t)$.

In order to investigate the scaling and spatial dependence of $\mathcal {P}_C$, we consider an ensemble of two-dimensional plane cuts, whereby each plane contains the origin and its normal is oriented randomly. On each plane cut, we consider a circle of radius $r$, centred at the origin, and let $\boldsymbol {e}_t$ be the unit vector along the tangential direction. Let $q$ be the arc length distance from an arbitrary point along the circle ($0 \leqslant q < 2{\rm \pi} r$). Figure 13(a) shows a schematic representation of one such planar cut. The progress variable $C$ as a function of the coordinate $q$ along one such circle is shown in figure 13(b).

Figure 13.

Flame surface crossings in a plane for simulation $R2$ at $t/\tau _0 = 4.5$. (a) Cut of the flame surface $C = c^{*}$. (b) Progress variable field along a circle of radius $r$ versus the normalized arc length $q/r$.

Given the spherical symmetry of the statistics, the progress variable $C$ and its gradient $\boldsymbol {\nabla } C$ are ergodic along $\boldsymbol {e}_t$. The probability $\mathbb {P}$ that $C$ takes a value between $c-\textrm {d}c/2$ and $c+\textrm {d}c/2$ on the circle is

(6.8)\begin{equation} \mathbb{P}[ c -\textrm{d}c/2 \leqslant C \leqslant c+\textrm{d}c/2] = \mathcal{P}_C(c; r,t)\,\textrm{d}c = \frac{1}{p 2{\rm \pi} r} \sum _{j=1}^{p} \sum _{i=1}^{m_j} \,\textrm{d}q_{ij}, \end{equation}

where $\textrm {d}q_{ij}$ is an infinitesimal arc length centred at location $q_{ij}$ such that $C(q_{ij})=c$ and $c-\textrm {d}c/2 \leqslant C(q) \leqslant c+\textrm {d}c/2$ for $q_{ij}-\textrm {d}q_{ij}/2 \leqslant q \leqslant q_{ij}+\textrm {d}q_{ij}/2$ and $m_j$ is the number of locations along circle $j$ ($\,j=1,\ldots ,p$). Similar to the nomenclature used in the Bray–Moss–Libby (BML) model (Bray & Moss Reference Bray and Moss1977; Libby & Bray Reference Libby and Bray1980), each of the $q_{ij}$ locations is referred to as a flame crossing.

Each infinitesimal arc length $\textrm {d}q_{ij}$ is related to the projection of the gradient $\boldsymbol {\nabla } C$ onto the tangential vector $\boldsymbol {e}_t$ at the flame crossing $i$ with circle of radius $r$ on plane $j$:

(6.9)\begin{equation} \textrm{d}q_{ij} = \textrm{d}c / |\boldsymbol{\nabla} C \boldsymbol{\cdot} \boldsymbol{e}_t|_{ij}. \end{equation}

Let $m$ indicate the total number of flame crossings summed over all planes. Rearranging (6.8) and dividing by $\textrm {d}c$, we have

(6.10)\begin{align} \mathcal{P}_C(c; r,t) & = \frac{m}{p 2{\rm \pi} r} \, \frac{1}{m} \sum _{j=1}^{p} \sum _{i=1}^{m_j} |\boldsymbol{\nabla} C \boldsymbol{\cdot} \boldsymbol{e}_t|_{ij}^{-1} \end{align}

(6.11)\begin{align} & = \varpi(r,t) \, \langle |\boldsymbol{\nabla} C \boldsymbol{\cdot} \boldsymbol{e}_t|^{-1} | C=c\rangle, \end{align}

where $\varpi (r,t)=m/(p2{\rm \pi} r)$ is the flame crossing frequency, defined as the number of flame crossings per unit length. The average of $|\boldsymbol {\nabla } C \boldsymbol {\cdot } \boldsymbol {e}_t|^{-1}$ over all crossings on circles of radius $r$ is simply the conditional average of $|\boldsymbol {\nabla } C \boldsymbol {\cdot } \boldsymbol {e}_t|^{-1}$ at the radial location $r$.

Since the expression for $\varSigma$ involves the conditional mean of $|\boldsymbol {\nabla } C|$, it is beneficial to relate the conditional mean of the inverse $|\boldsymbol {\nabla } C \boldsymbol {\cdot } \boldsymbol {e}_t|^{-1}$ to the inverse of the conditional mean directly as

(6.12)\begin{equation} \langle |\boldsymbol{\nabla} C \boldsymbol{\cdot} \boldsymbol{e}_t|^{-1} | C=c\rangle = \varUpsilon \, \langle |\boldsymbol{\nabla} C \boldsymbol{\cdot} \boldsymbol{e}_t| | C=c\rangle^{-1}, \end{equation}

where $\varUpsilon$ is given by

(6.13)\begin{equation} \varUpsilon = 1 + {Var}\left\{ |\boldsymbol{\nabla} C \boldsymbol{\cdot} \boldsymbol{e}_t | | C = c \right\} / \langle |\boldsymbol{\nabla} C \boldsymbol{\cdot} \boldsymbol{e}_t | | C = c \rangle^{2} + \ldots. \end{equation}

We find that $\varUpsilon \approx 1.35$ for $0.5 \leqslant c \leqslant 0.9$ across all simulations at all times as shown in figure 14(a). In the limit of infinitesimally thin turbulent premixed flames, $\varUpsilon \to 1$.

Figure 14.

(a) The $\varUpsilon$ factor and (b) alignment $\langle |\cos \alpha _{nt}|| C = c\rangle$ statistics for three simulations at two select times: $R1$ ($\bigcirc$), $R2$ ($\Box$) and $R3$ ($\triangle$). (c) Peak surface density function $\varSigma _m$ (thick line), PDF of progress variable $\mathcal {P}_C$ ($\Box$), and conditional mean of the gradient magnitude $\langle |\boldsymbol {\nabla } C| | C = c \rangle$ ($\bigcirc$) at $r = R(t)$, normalized by their corresponding values for $c = c^{*}$. Data from simulation $R2$.

Assuming that the projection of the flame normal $\boldsymbol {n}$ onto $\boldsymbol {e}_t$ and the gradient magnitude are uncorrelated, we write

(6.14)\begin{equation} \langle |\boldsymbol{\nabla} C| \, |\boldsymbol{n}\boldsymbol{\cdot}\boldsymbol{e}_t| | C = c \rangle \approx \langle |\boldsymbol{\nabla} C| | C = c \rangle \langle |\boldsymbol{n}\boldsymbol{\cdot}\boldsymbol{e}_t| | C = c \rangle. \end{equation}

The assumption that the two are uncorrelated appears to be reasonable on the account that turbulence in the reactants is isotropic. Then, $\mathcal {P}_C$ reads as

(6.15)\begin{equation} \mathcal{P}_C(c;r,t) = \frac{ \varpi(r,t) \varUpsilon} {\langle | \boldsymbol{\nabla} C| | C = c \rangle \langle|\cos \alpha_{nt}| | C=c \rangle }, \end{equation}

where $|\boldsymbol {n}\boldsymbol {\cdot }\boldsymbol {e}_t| = |\cos \alpha _{nt}|$ and $\alpha _{nt}$ is the angle between the normal $\boldsymbol {n}$ and the ergodic direction $\boldsymbol {e}_t$ and represents the orientation of the flamelets with respect to the ergodic direction. We find that the orientation angle $\alpha _{nt}$ is nearly constant in time, independent of the conditioning value $c$, and the same across simulations. As a result, $\varSigma$ is independent of the conditioning value $c$ for $0.1 \leqslant c \leqslant 0.9$ as shown in figure 14(c), since $\mathcal {P}_C \sim 1/\langle |\boldsymbol {\nabla } C| | C = c \rangle$.

Based on the above analysis, an approximate expression for the surface density function is

(6.16)\begin{equation} \varSigma(r,t; c) = \varpi(r,t) \varUpsilon / \langle|\cos \alpha_{nt}| | C=c \rangle. \end{equation}

Figure 15 compares the left- and right-hand sides of (6.16) for $c = 0.73$, which are found to be in good agreement. Since the factor $\varUpsilon /\langle |\cos \alpha _{nt}| | C=c \rangle$ is approximately constant in space, time and across simulations, the spatial and temporal dependence of $\varSigma =\varSigma (r,t)$ is solely due to that of the crossing frequency $\varpi =\varpi (r,t)$.

Figure 15.

Comparison between the two expressions for $\varSigma$ in (6.16) and the direct evaluation from the gradients for three simulations at five times: (a) $R1$, (b) $R2$ and (c) $R3$. Time increases from left to right.

This result is consistent with the Bray–Moss–Libby theory of turbulent premixed combustion, whereby the surface density function is modelled in terms of the spatial crossing frequency and a mean cosine factor as $\varSigma = \varpi /\langle | \cos \alpha _{nt} |\rangle$ (Bray, Libby & Moss Reference Bray, Libby and Moss1984; Bray & Libby Reference Bray and Libby1986). Here we find a similar expression with the additional factor $\varUpsilon = {O}(1)$, which provides a correction for the fact that premixed flames are not infinitesimally thin and $\varUpsilon$ is not strictly unity.

For a statistically stationary and planar turbulent premixed flame, the BML model relates the crossing frequency $\varpi$ to the two-point, one-time autocorrelation function of the progress variable

(6.17)\begin{gather} \mathcal{F}(q; x_1) = \langle C'(\boldsymbol{x},t)C'(\boldsymbol{x} + q \boldsymbol{e}_{\alpha},t)\rangle/\sigma_C^{2}, \end{gather}

(6.18)\begin{gather}\varpi =\varpi(x_1)= -2 \partial \mathcal{F}/\partial q|_{q=0}, \end{gather}

where $x_1$ is the inhomogeneous coordinate normal to the plane of the flame, $C'=C-\langle C \rangle$ is the fluctuation field, $\sigma ^{2}_C = \langle (C-\langle C \rangle )^{2} \rangle$ is the variance and $\boldsymbol {e}_{\alpha }$ is a unit vector in the plane of the flame that identifies an ergodic direction. Under specific assumptions on the functional form of the autocorrelation function $\mathcal {F}$, the crossing frequency and surface density function read as

(6.19)\begin{gather} \varpi = A_{\varpi} \langle C\rangle(1-\langle C\rangle)/L^{*}, \end{gather}

(6.20)\begin{gather}\varSigma = A_{\varSigma} \langle C\rangle(1-\langle C\rangle)/L^{*}, \end{gather}

where $\langle C \rangle =\langle C \rangle (x_1)$, $A_{\varpi }$ and $A_{\varSigma }$ are constants of order unity, and $L^{*}$ is the so-called wrinkling scale.

Since the crossing frequency is closely related to the autocorrelation function of the progress variable (Bray et al. Reference Bray, Libby and Moss1984; Bray & Libby Reference Bray and Libby1986), $L^{*}$ likely reflects the entire spectrum of the progress variable turbulent field $C(\boldsymbol {x},t)$, although it is not clear how $L^{*}$ should scale with the Reynolds number and how a suitable autocorrelation length could be defined from the autocorrelation function.

There exists significant controversy on the origin and values taken by the wrinkling scale in the literature. Cant & Bray (Reference Cant and Bray1989) proposed the following closure for the wrinkling scale,

(6.21)\begin{equation} L^{*} \propto k^{3/2} \epsilon^{-1}, \end{equation}

thereby advancing the hypothesis that the wrinkling scale is proportional to the integral scale defined as $l = u'^{3}/\epsilon$ and controlled by turbulence and energy-containing fluid motions, rather than flame propagation. Deschamps et al. (Reference Deschamps, Boukhalfa, Chauveau, Gökalp, Shepherd and Cheng1992) observed $L^{*} \approx l$ for conical turbulent premixed flames, while others (Veynante, Duclos & Piana Reference Veynante, Duclos and Piana1994; Shy et al. Reference Shy, Lee, Chang and Yang2000) found that the wrinkling scale is about five times smaller than the integral scale for V-shaped and planar turbulent premixed flames. Further, Shy et al. (Reference Shy, Lee, Chang and Yang2000) reported that the wrinkling scale remained constant for two different turbulence intensities, while the integral length scale changed by ${\approx } 50\,\%$. However, inadequate resolution of the turbulent flame surface may be responsible for this observation, as the wrinkling scale was found to be of the size as the width of the averaging box used for the measurement of the surface density function. Finally, dependence of $L^{*}$ on $u'/S_L$ has been postulated also, yet no conclusive evidence exists.

Given that $L^{*}$ and $1/\varSigma$ are related to within constants of order unity, we define the wrinkling scale as $L^{*} = (4 \varSigma _m)^{-1}$, where $\varSigma _m$ is the peak surface density in (5.19). The factor of 4 is included so as to be consistent with (6.20), since the peak surface density $\varSigma _m$ occurs near $\langle C \rangle = 0.5$. The proportionality $L^{*} \propto 1/\varSigma _m$ highlights that both quantities obey the same scaling laws.

Figure 16(a) shows the temporal evolution of $\varSigma _m$ normalized by the thermal thickness of the laminar premixed flame. It is apparent that $\varSigma _m$ decreases in time several fold for each simulation. Because $\delta _L^{0}$ is constant across simulations and the variation in the flame thickness is minimal during the propagation of the turbulent flames, figure 16(a) shows conclusively that $\varSigma _m$ does not scale with the thermal thickness of the laminar flame. This behaviour is consistent with experiments on turbulent spherical flames in decaying turbulence behind grids (Renou et al. Reference Renou, Mura, Samson and Boukhalfa2002; Fries et al. Reference Fries, Ochs, Saha, Ranjan and Menon2019).

Figure 16.

(a) Peak flame surface density $\varSigma _m$ normalized by the thermal flame thickness $\delta _L^{0}$. (b) Ratio of length scales and power law fits $a{Re}_{\lambda }^{b}$ (solid lines). We observe $l/\eta \sim {Re}_{\lambda }^{1.5}$, $l/\lambda \sim {Re}_{\lambda }^{1.0}$ and $l/L^{*} \sim {Re}_{\lambda }^{1.13}$. Thus, $L^{*}$ lies between $\eta$ and $\lambda$ with separation increasing with ${Re}_{\lambda }$. Symbols in both (a,b) represent data from various simulations: $R1$ ($\bigcirc$), $R2$ ($\square$), $R2a$ ($\Diamond$), $R3$ ($\triangle$) and $R3s$ ($\triangledown$).

Figure 16(b) shows $L^{*}$ normalized by the integral scale $l$ and plotted against ${Re}_{\lambda }$. Data from all flame configurations and several times during each simulation are shown. It is apparent that over the range $30 \leqslant {Re}_{\lambda } \leqslant 85$, $L^{*}$ is about 5 to 10 times smaller than the integral length scale. Further, the wrinkling scale falls between the Taylor scale $\lambda$ and Kolmogorov scale $\eta$, albeit closer to the former than to the latter. When scaled with $l$, the data suggest the following power law fit for the wrinkling scale:

(6.22)\begin{equation} l/L^{*} = 4\varSigma_m l = 0.0756 {Re}_{\lambda}^{1.13}. \end{equation}

Note that only data for $t/\tau _0 > 0.5$ have been used in the fit since it is necessary for turbulent motions to wrinkle the flame past an initial transient, during which a power law scaling for $l/L^{*}$ is not warranted.

The power law scaling from (6.22) shown in figure 16(b) is rather convincing, especially because it holds across simulations and instantaneously even as ${Re}_{\lambda }$ and $l$ vary in time during the decay of turbulence. Nonetheless, studies over a broader range of Reynolds number are obviously desirable.

The observation that $\eta < L^{*} < \lambda$ suggests that the peak surface density is governed by small scales. The importance of small scales in controlling $\varSigma _m$ has been postulated by Huh, Kwon & Lee (Reference Huh, Kwon and Lee2013), who analysed the surface density transport equation for statistically planar flames and proposed that $\varSigma _m$ scales with the inverse of the mean flame surface curvature. Since Zheng, You & Yang (Reference Zheng, You and Yang2017) demonstrated that the PDF of the flame surface curvature is independent of the Reynolds number when normalized with the Kolmogorov length, a case could be made that $\varSigma _m \propto \eta ^{-1}$, independently of ${Re}_{\lambda }$. Our data do not support this conclusion, although they do highlight the fact that $L^{*}$ is smaller than $\lambda$ and its evolution is most likely related to processes at the dissipative end of the inertial range of the turbulence spectrum.

The Darrieus–Landau (DL) instability (Darrieus Reference Darrieus1938; Landau Reference Landau1944) may provide an additional mechanism for flame surface wrinkling (Fogla, Creta & Matalon Reference Fogla, Creta and Matalon2013; Creta et al. Reference Creta, Lamioni, Lapenna and Troiani2016), thereby influencing the surface density distribution and the wrinkling scale. The instability may be particularly important towards the end of the simulations, as pressure and flame radius increase, while turbulence decays leading to small $u'/S_L$.

The importance of the DL instability in the present flames may be assessed by comparing the growth rates of the DL instability against the rates of flame wrinkling in the range of wavenumbers where both effects are active. It is assumed that the range of scales over which the DL instability is important is $\kappa \in [1/R, 1/\delta _L]$, while that of turbulent wrinkling is $\kappa \in [1/l, 1/\eta ]$. Since $R > l$ and $\eta < \delta _L$ at all times, the overlap region is $\kappa \in [1/l, 1/\delta _L]$. Following the analysis in Yang et al. (Reference Yang, Saha, Liu and Law2018), the ratio is

(6.23)\begin{equation} \omega_T (\kappa)/\omega_{DL}(\kappa) \approx u'_{\kappa}/S_L, \end{equation}

where $u'_{\kappa } = (\epsilon /\kappa )^{1/3}$ is the eddy velocity associated with wavenumber $\kappa$. Since $u'_{\kappa }/S_L > u'_{\eta }/S_L > 1$ for all $\kappa$ in the overlap region, we conclude that all turbulent flames considered in this study belong to the turbulence dominated regime (Yang et al. Reference Yang, Saha, Liu and Law2018), and the effect of DL instability can be safely neglected.

6.3. Scaling of the area ratio

The findings in §§ 6.1 and 6.2 have critical implications with regard to the evolution of the area ratio $\chi$ and its values across flame configurations. We begin by rearranging (5.20a) into

(6.24)\begin{equation} \chi = \varSigma_m \delta_T \beta = (l/4 L^{*}) (\delta_T/l) \beta. \end{equation}

Recalling that $\beta$ is a shape factor that is nearly constant and substituting the scaling laws for the brush and peak surface density function, we obtain

(6.25)\begin{equation} \chi(t) = C_{\chi} {Re}_{\lambda}^{1.13} f(s) , \end{equation}

where $C_{\chi }$ is a constant and the dependence of $\delta _T/l$ on time is captured by $f(s)$ with $s=\log (1+t/t_0)$ indicating the transformed time coordinate. The area ratio $\chi$ and $S_T/S_L \sim \chi$ depend on time directly due to $\delta _T/l \sim f(s)$ and indirectly due to ${Re}_{\lambda }={Re}_{\lambda }(t)$ in decaying turbulence.

The most important implication of (6.25) is that

(6.26)\begin{equation} \chi(t){Re}_{\lambda}^{-1.13} \sim f(s), \end{equation}

so that if two turbulent spherical flames are compared at the same logarithmic time $s$, the area ratio $\chi$ scales as ${Re}_{\lambda }^{1.13}$ or as ${Re}^{0.56}$, since ${Re} = u'l/\nu \sim {Re}_{\lambda }^{2}$. This observation is broadly consistent with the previously reported Reynolds dependence of burning rates in spherical turbulent flames (Chaudhuri et al. Reference Chaudhuri, Wu, Zhu and Law2012; Jiang et al. Reference Jiang, Shy, Li, Huang and Nguyen2016; Ahmed & Swaminathan Reference Ahmed and Swaminathan2013).

Figure 17(a) shows that $\chi$ varies in time and across flame configurations. For $t/\tau _0 > 2$, $\chi$ reaches a limit value, which differ for each case by as much as a factor of 1.6. The same data are shown in compensated form as $\chi (t){Re}_{\lambda }^{-1.13}$ versus $s$ in figure 17(b). Note that only data for $t/\tau _0 > 0.5$, which corresponds to $s > 0.3$, are shown because the scaling of $\varSigma _m$ implies that turbulent motions have had sufficient time to wrinkle the flame past an initial transient, during which the power law scaling $l/L^{*}$ in (6.22) is not applicable.

Figure 17.

(a) Area ratio versus time $t/\tau _0$. (b) Area ratio compensated with the proposed Reynolds scaling versus the transformed time coordinate $s=\log (1+t/t_0)$ with $t_0=n\tau _0$. Symbols represent data from simulations: $R1$ ($\bigcirc$), $R2$ ($\square$), $R2a$ ($\Diamond$), $R3$ ($\triangle$) and $R3s$ ($\triangledown$).

The collapse in figure 17(b) is encouraging, albeit not perfect, especially for the data from simulations $R3$ and $R3s$ at later times $s>1$. Despite minor inconsistencies, which are related to the imperfect collapse of $\delta _T/l$ at later times as shown in figure 10(b), we conclude that scale separation, as parametrized by the Reynolds number plays an important role in controlling the area ratio and the dimensionless turbulent flame speed $S_T/S_L \sim \chi$ across flame configurations.

In order to investigate this important implication, three simulations are considered. These include $R2$ and $R2a$, which share the same Reynolds number, but not the same $u'/S_L$, and simulations $R1$ and $R2a$, which share $u'/S_L$, but not the same Reynolds number. Note that $u'/S_L$ changes in time as reported in figure 3(c).

From the evolution of $\chi$ for $R1$, $R2$ and $R2a$ in figure 17(a), it is clear that when the Reynolds number is held constant and $u'/S_L$ changes (along with $l/\delta _L$), the area ratio does not change ($R2$ vs. $R2a$). On the other hand, when $u'/S_L$ is held constant and the Reynolds number changes (along with $l/\delta _L$), the area ratio is greater for the flame with the higher Reynolds number ($R1$ vs. $R2a$). These results support the conclusion that, for a given premixed mixture, $S_T/S_L$ is not a function of $u'/S_L$ at constant Reynolds number for the flame configuration and regime considered. A similar Reynolds dependence was proposed by Chaudhuri et al. (Reference Chaudhuri, Akkerman and Law2011) based on spectral analysis of the level-set equations. Because when $u'/S_L$ is held constant as ${Re}_{\lambda }$ increases, the ratio $l/\delta _L$ increases proportionally also (for the same reactive mixture, pressure and temperature), the observed trends in $\chi$ may not be conclusively attributed solely to ${Re}_{\lambda }$ independently of $l/\delta _L$ and a broader set of simulations are required.

In closing, we remark that in most experiments on turbulent premixed flames, the integral scale of the flow remains approximately constant as $u'$ is varied by increasing flow rates or fan speeds. This occurrence is due to the fact that the integral scales are largely set by the geometrical details of the burner, turbulence-generating grids, or fans, which are held fixed for practical reasons. The consequence is that both $u'/S_L$ and ${Re}$ vary together at $l/\delta _L \approx const$ in most studies. Then, with $l/\delta _L$ constant as $u'/S_L$ increases holding premixed reactants, kinematic viscosity (i.e. pressure), and burner geometry unchanged, one obtains $S_T/S_L \sim (u'/S_L)^{0.55}$ since $S_T/S_L \sim {Re}^{0.55}$.