The Imago Dei and Affective Participation

To speak of the imago Dei is to affirm the human capacity to reflect and respond to divine relationality. The triune God, defined by communion, perichoresis and love, provides the theological framework within which emotional life finds meaning. Gunton writes, ‘To be in the image of God is therefore to be called to represent God to the creation and the creation to God, so enabling it to reach its perfection’ (Reference Gunton1992, pp. 102–103). Emotional experience, then, becomes a theological capacity: the ability to feel, empathize, rejoice and grieve with others arises from participation in the life of God. This participatory understanding of emotion resonates deeply with Anglican sacramental theology, which affirms that divine grace is mediated through the fullness of human experience, bodily, emotional, and communal. The liturgical rhythms of the Book of Common Prayer, with their movements of penitence, praise and intercession, serve as practices of affective formation (DeSilva, Reference DeSilva2008). Within this tradition, emotions are received as gifts to be interpreted, ordered and directed towards love of God and neighbour. Emotionally attuned ministry, viewed through this theological lens, becomes a form of affective participation in divine life, a way of being and knowing shaped by compassion, justice and self-giving love. Emotional attunement involves more than functional management; it draws the minister into the empathic movements of the Spirit who groans with creation (Rom. 8:26) and weeps over Jerusalem (Lk. 19:41). This account resists the narrowing of emotional life to strategic skill and instead affirms an incarnational anthropology. As Farrer (Reference Farrer1948) writes, ‘We can only know God in expressing God: and we can express him in no other terms than such as are already significant to us, terms we already have in familiar use’ (p. 87).

Emotion, Embodiment, and Kenosis

Anglican theology, shaped by its incarnational emphasis, has long affirmed that divine presence is revealed through embodied and emotionally expressive life. The figure of Christ, as portrayed in the Gospels, is deeply responsive to the world: moved by compassion, grieved by loss and stirred by injustice. These emotional expressions reflect divine integrity, revealing a God whose salvific engagement is immersed in the joys and sorrows of human experience. Rowan Williams (Reference Williams2012) captures this incarnational dynamic in his meditation on divine attention: ‘Just sit where I can see you,’ he imagines God saying. ‘It’s me contemplating you… the you I made, the you I redeemed, the you I love forever and ever’. This divine gaze is affective and relational, inviting the human person into a space of emotional openness and mutual delight. The kenotic pattern of Christ’s emotional life, as described in Philippians 2, offers a theological invitation to clergy. Emotional vulnerability, far from undermining priestly vocation, aligns with the self-emptying love of Christ. Clergy often navigate tensions between emotional authenticity and ecclesial expectations of composure and resilience (Emslie, Reference Emslie2021). A theological account of emotion must therefore include kenosis, not as suppression, but as a call to be affectively present, grounded in divine identity. This orientation towards emotional vulnerability finds resonance within practical theology, which affirms that authentic pastoral ministry involves more than doctrinal precision or liturgical competence. It requires empathic presence, an ability to hold tension, share grief and embody hope. Emotional intelligence, understood in this light, becomes less a matter of regulation and more a matter of resonance: a capacity to dwell with others in ways that reflect Christ’s incarnational presence.

The Liturgical and Ecclesial Formation of the Affective Self

Anglican theological anthropology also recognizes the formative power of liturgy in shaping emotional consciousness (Johnson, Reference Johnson, Johnson, Moore and Williams2025). The prayers, rhythms and symbols of Anglican worship serve as pedagogies of emotion, guiding the faithful in lament, praise, confession and thanksgiving. These liturgical movements cultivate an emotional imagination attuned to divine presence and ecclesial belonging. Clergy formation, therefore, involves affective as well as cognitive development; ministers are called to embody emotional integrity in both worship and witness. This emphasis on emotional authenticity is reflected in the Church of England’s report Trust and Trustworthiness within the Church of England, which highlights the importance of trust, emotional presence and spiritual integrity in ministerial life (Church of England, 2024). Austin Farrer similarly affirms the sacramental shaping of the emotional self: ‘God’s presence, spirit, power and love are poured into your church, into your bodies and your souls, like wine into cups, as much as they will contain, and then overflows’ (Reference Farrer1975, p. 167). This image of divine plenitude suggests that emotional formation is communal and sacramental, shaped through liturgical participation and ecclesial life. The liturgy becomes the vessel through which the affective self is filled, shaped and offered. United Kingdom researchers have consistently advocated for the inclusion of affective variables in clergy studies, particularly in relation to psychological type and personality (Francis, Reference Francis1999; Francis et al., Reference Francis, Laycock and Brewster2017; Village and Francis, Reference Village and Francis2023). Building on this tradition, emotional intelligence, when understood as an expression of theological anthropology, offers a valuable framework for exploring how clergy embody their priesthood within emotionally complex contexts. Archdeacons interviewed by Emslie (Reference Emslie2021) described emotional awareness in terms such as ‘how much [clergy] are listening to themselves… how much they are listening to what’s going on around them’, another the importance of ‘getting alongside people’, while Archdeacon AKOFootnote ¹ reflected on prayer as the opening of oneself, including one’s emotions:

This understanding affirms the need for ministerial formation that nurtures emotional awareness as a spiritual discipline. Reflective practice, supervision and theological education must engage the whole person – mind, heart and body – so that the affective self may be formed in fidelity to priestly vocation (Francis and Turton, Reference Francis and Turton2004; Gubi, Reference Gubi2020; Trist, Reference Trist2025). As Austin Farrer reminds us: ‘We find our true being by letting God make us what he would have us’ (Reference Farrer1972, p. 200).

Anthropocentrism and Functionalism in EI Paradigms

A central concern with secular EI models lies in their anthropocentric foundation. Both ability-based and trait-based approaches tend to assume an autonomous individual, capable of self-regulation and emotional mastery in pursuit of personal or organizational success. This assumption aligns with late-modern ideals of individual agency and human capital, yet diverges from Anglican theological anthropology, which emphasizes dependence on divine grace, relational ontology and the formative role of ecclesial community (Gunton and Schwöbel, Reference Gunton and Schwobel1991; Davies, Reference Davies2020). As Wondra (Reference Wondra2004) observes, theological understandings of personhood shape ethical practice and ecclesial life: ‘How persons understand themselves deeply shapes how they approach others, how they cherish and judge their relationships, and how they go about being faithful to the truth of the gospel proclamation…’ (pp. 58–59). Within ordained ministry, anthropocentric models may inadvertently reinforce clerical self-sufficiency and managerial leadership styles. Emotional competence, framed as an individual achievement, can obscure the sustaining role of sacramental grace, spiritual direction and communal discernment. Emslie’s (Reference Emslie2021) research among CofE Archdeacons revealed that clergy often felt pressure to be emotionally available yet invulnerable, a tension that contributed to internal conflict and emotional exhaustion. When EI is understood as a performance metric rather than a theological disposition, the emotional life of the priest risks becoming a burden rather than a gift. Secular EI models also tend to adopt a functionalist orientation, valuing emotional regulation for its contribution to interpersonal effectiveness and organizational success. While such aims may be appropriate in corporate settings, they sit uneasily within the ethos of priestly ministry, which is shaped by fidelity, presence and pastoral self-giving rather than efficiency or outcomes (Goergen and Garrido, Reference Goergen and Garrido2017; Sacerdotalis, Reference Sacerdotalis2016). Emotion, in this context, is more than a tool; it is a site of divine encounter and vocational formation.

Limited Engagement with Spiritual and Vocational Dimensions

Another limitation of secular EI frameworks is their minimal engagement with the spiritual and vocational dimensions of emotional life. While empathy and self-awareness are acknowledged as valuable, they are typically framed in psychological or interpersonal terms. The spiritual resonance of emotion, its connection to prayer, discernment, lament and consolation in God, receives little attention in mainstream EI theory. For clergy, emotional experience is embedded in sacramental practice, pastoral care and liturgical rhythm. Joy may be understood as fruit of the Spirit; grief as participation in Christ’s suffering and hope as a vision of eschatological promise. To interpret these affective states solely as cognitive-affective processes is to miss their theological depth and ecclesial significance. Moreover, the vocational context of ministry introduces a distinct emotional ecology. Clergy often navigate asymmetrical relationships, complex role expectations and the emotional demands of presence in situations of suffering and ambiguity. Secular EI models frequently assume reciprocal emotional dynamics and symmetrical power relations, assumptions that do not reflect the pastoral reality. Archdeacon NKV spoke of ‘hungry churches’ and the unhealthy dynamic that emerges when clergy are made to feel constantly needed: ‘You allow your congregation to tell you that they need you all the time’. Such reflections point to a form of emotional labour that exceeds conventional workplace models and demands theological categories for proper understanding.

Cultural Transposition and Ministerial Identity

The integration of secular EI models into Anglican clergy development raises important questions regarding cultural transposition. Much of the foundational research and training literature in EI originates from North American corporate and educational contexts, shaped by individualistic and achievement-oriented values. When these frameworks are introduced into Anglican ministerial formation, particularly within the UK, they may subtly reconfigure the priestly vocation in terms of emotional performance, charisma and affective labour. Such a shift may obscure traditional Anglican understandings of priesthood, which emphasize presence, prayerfulness and sacramental representation (Allen, Reference Allen2015). It may also encourage a consumer-oriented model of ministry, in which clergy are perceived as providers of emotional and spiritual goods, responsive to congregational demand. Foppen and van Saane (Reference Foppen and van Saane2024), in their review of leadership literature, observe that effectiveness is frequently measured by attendance and numerical growth, with leader-centric criteria dominating the discourse (p. 13). The language of ‘skills’ and ‘competencies’, prevalent in EI literature (Bru-Luna et al., Reference Bru-Luna, Martí-Vilar, Merino-Soto and Cervera-Santiago2021), can mask the deeper moral and spiritual formation required for emotional maturity in ministry. Compassion, vulnerability, resilience and attentiveness emerge not merely through training but through character formation and grace. These qualities are cultivated over time through prayer, theological reflection and ecclesial belonging, and supported by spiritual direction and pastoral supervision. An overreliance on secular EI frameworks may therefore limit more holistic approaches to clergy formation, approaches that engage the whole person in relation to God, others and self. Emotional maturity in ministry is shaped within the ecclesial body, through sacramental life and spiritual discipline, rather than through isolated techniques or managerial strategies.

The Risk of Instrumentalising Emotion

Secular models of EI often present emotion as a resource to be regulated, controlled or deployed for specific outcomes (Mortillaro and Schlegel, Reference Mortillaro and Schlegel2023). While this approach may offer pragmatic benefits in professional environments, it may diminish the affective authenticity that lies at the heart of pastoral ministry. Within the context of ordained vocation, emotional transparency is not a liability but a form of theological witness. Silence, tears and vulnerability may communicate pastoral presence more profoundly than calibrated empathy or strategic emotional display. The priest is called to dwell with others in their emotional reality, embodying the compassion of Christ. Emotional presence in ministry is shaped by attentiveness, humility and grace, rather than by technique. Several Archdeacons expressed discomfort with the idea of applying EI techniques in pastoral encounters, rather to be consciously self-aware. SLJ suggested that ‘all clergy know that they’ve got to hold it together in a funeral. It wouldn’t do much good it they broke down and sobbed for five minutes at the beginning of the service, yet they’ve all taken funerals where, or felt that they needed to do that’. Similarly, DAR noted, for the sake of the mourners: ‘It is very appropriate for clergy to hold it together however they may be feeling… taking funerals of children the same age as their own children… to behave in a particular way in order to provide the framework for others’. Emotional intelligence, when understood through a theological lens, cannot be reduced to cognitive skill or behavioural strategy. It must be rooted in a spirituality of presence, a disposition formed through prayer, sacrament and ecclesial life. Emotional engagement in ministry reflects the incarnational and kenotic character of Christ, inviting clergy to be present with others in ways that honour both human vulnerability and divine grace.

Emotional Intelligence as Kenotic Participation

The Pauline hymn of Philippians 2.5–11 provides a rich theological foundation for this reframing. Christ, though in the form of God, emptied himself (ekenōsen), taking the form of a servant. This kenotic movement has long shaped theological understandings of pastoral ministry (Purves, Reference Purves2013; Josette and Baholy, Reference Josette and Baholy2024), offering a model of leadership grounded in self-giving love. Within a sacramental model of EI, emotional intelligence is reimagined as kenotic openness, a relinquishing of self-interest in order to attend to the emotional reality of others. Archdeacon BID reflected on this dynamic: ‘I’ve learnt how to uncouple seeing it as a personal thing. What is more important is enabling this person to get beyond where they’re stuck’. This disposition reflects a theological orientation towards emotional presence, one that prioritizes the needs of the other over self-defence or control. Archdeacon MOL described the challenge of emotional self-awareness in ministry: ‘You have to be on top of yourself… if I get angry, upset, worried or over-enthusiastic… one needs to be able to manage one’s emotions’. Such management is not repression, but a theological act of presence, a way of being with others that mirrors Christ’s self-emptying love. The Eucharist becomes paradigmatic here: the priest presides not with emotional detachment, but with the full weight of communal joy and sorrow, made present in bread broken and wine outpoured.

The Eucharist and Emotional Formation

The Eucharist, as source and summit of Christian life, also serves as a site of affective formation. Its liturgical structure – confession, proclamation, intercession, thanksgiving, lamentation and communion – guides both priest and people through an emotional journey shaped by empathy, vulnerability and attentiveness. The writer movingly recalls two elderly women leaning on each other as they shuffled to the communion rail, then helping each other up, and returning to their pew clasped together: their mutuality a powerful testimony to true communion. Within the Eucharistic celebration, there is space for sorrow and celebration, for memory and anticipation and for silence and song. The emotional grammar of Anglican liturgy forms the affective self through participation rather than technique. Several Archdeacons described moments of deep emotional resonance during worship. At theological college, Archdeacon SOJ said, ‘the best sermons at theological college were the ones where the staff stood up and said God loves you’. Another, NMV, said,

And the same Archdeacon later of liturgical silence,

These reflections suggest that a Eucharistic service is more than a theological event; it is an emotionally charged act of intercession, where personal affect and ecclesial vocation converge. Within this sacramental dynamic, EI becomes a spiritual disposition. The presiding priest does not manipulate emotion but facilitates a communal encounter with God. When emotions are surfaced, named and held, one is transformed. Emotional intelligence, in this light, is less about performing empathy and more about creating sacred space in which emotional life is reverently embraced.

Pastoral Empathy and the Theology of Presence

A sacramental understanding of EI finds deep resonance in the Anglican theology of presence, which undergirds much of its pastoral practice (Kennedy, Reference Kennedy2016; Crossnoe, Reference Crossnoe, Handschy, Hawk-Reinhard and Crossnoe2022). In contrast to therapeutic or managerial models that often prioritize intervention, Anglican ministry frequently draws upon the quiet strength of presence, being with another in their suffering or joy, without the compulsion to fix, advise or resolve. This mode of pastoral engagement, often described as ‘pastoral presence’ (Webb, Reference Webb1990; Hove, Reference Hove2022), reflects both theological conviction and emotional attunement. Archdeacon BUV offered a poignant illustration: ‘A good funeral visit… you are intensely, intentionally carving out space where they can talk with a stranger… that honouring process… can be incredibly healing because somebody else noticed’. This is not emotional passivity; it is theological attentiveness, an incarnational act of being-with that honours the dignity of the other and opens space for grace. Francis (Reference Francis2002; Reference Francis2004; Reference Francis2015) has written extensively on pastoral care as a disciplined attentiveness to the lived experience of the other, shaped by prayer and theological imagination. In this view, empathy is more than emotional resonance; it is the capacity to inhabit the emotional world of another while remaining rooted in Christ. It is a form of spiritual hospitality, where the priest offers space for the emotional life of the other, bearing witness without needing to resolve. Such presence carries emotional cost. Archdeacon TAS reflected, ‘You need emotional support… collegiate support because otherwise you just become brutal… you become a functionary’. The sacramental model affirms that emotional presence must be sustained by spiritual discipline and community. Empathy, in this light, is neither boundless nor self-sacrificial to the point of depletion. It rests upon the secure foundation of sacramental identity; the priest is a vessel of grace, not its source. Emotional intelligence, therefore, includes the capacity to hold emotional tension without becoming overwhelmed, to attend to others without losing oneself, and to trust in the presence of God even when words fall short. These capacities are formed not through generic training alone, but through prayer, community and sacramental participation.

Emotional Literacy and Anglican Spiritual Practices

Sacramental EI also draws deeply from the Anglican spiritual tradition, which offers rich resources for emotional literacy and theological reflection. The daily rhythms of Morning and Evening Prayer, the Psalms, the Lectionary, and the liturgical seasons provide a framework for engaging the emotional life before God. These practices offer language for sorrow and joy, for longing and doubt and for praise and penitence. They foster emotional resilience not by suppressing feeling, but by integrating it within the redemptive narrative of Christian faith. Clergy who engage these practices often describe their emotional lives with theological depth. Archdeacon BID captured this integration: ‘You have to be sure enough in yourself – of who you are, who God is, what your ministry is… all of those sorts of things that contribute to your ability to be emotionally intelligent’. This confidence is not self-generated; it is formed through spiritual practice, ecclesial belonging and vocational clarity. The integration of spiritual discipline and emotional insight stands in contrast to secular EI models, which often overlook the formative role of communal worship, tradition and spiritual direction in shaping affective maturity. A sacramental model of EI recognizes that emotional health is a theological and communal endeavour, nurtured through prayer, liturgy and the companionship of the saints. Within this framework, EI is not a private achievement but a shared journey. It is cultivated in the presence of God, shaped by the rhythms of worship and sustained by the ecclesial community. The emotionally attuned priest is one who prays with the Church, listens with the heart and leads with compassion – formed by grace and faithful to the vocation of presence.

Emotional Demands of the Anglican Clerical Role

Clergy are called to be emotionally present in moments of profound human experience, offering care and containment while setting aside their own affective responses. This emotional labour is vocational and sacramental. Archdeacon BID observed, ‘Ministry asks so much of people emotionally… if you don’t have that high emotional intelligence, it asks too much of you and therefore it affects you both physically and mentally’. Similarly, Archdeacon BAB reflected, ‘I think most of my clergy are competent to do a good funeral… that’s sort of the evidence of dealing with those issues’. These moments are emotionally generative, forming part of the priest’s sacramental presence. Archdeacon CIR spoke to the existential weight of ministry: ‘To be a clergy person losing grip of your ministry is a frightening thing… your house, your livelihood, everything is tied up in it… and self-respect and dignity and so much’. Such reflections affirm that emotional engagement is central to priesthood and integral to its sacramental character. These accounts challenge secular paradigms that equate EI with composure or interpersonal success. Instead, they point to a vocation that requires the priest to carry both personal emotion and the emotional burdens of the community. The ecclesial role invites deep emotional engagement, often without reciprocal space for processing. The priest becomes a liturgical and pastoral presence through which collective affect is held and consecrated. Emotional labour in this context is vocational, sacramental and spiritually formative. The liturgical rhythm of the Church year also shapes clergy emotional ecology in subtle yet significant ways (Madhavathu, Reference Madhavathu2017). Participants described the emotional intensities of the key festivals of the Church and the emotional exhaustion of holding oneself together in public ministry, something Randall (Reference Randall2004) and Turton (Reference Turton2010) noted contributed to clergy leaving the ministry. Archdeacon TCI remarked, ‘I find Lent emotionally exhausting, not just because of what’s demanded liturgically, but because it mirrors something in me’. Such observations reflect the formative influence of Anglican worship on the emotional rhythms of clergy, a dynamic that is spiritually rich and emotionally demanding.

Institutional Ambiguity and Emotional Dislocation

A recurring theme in the qualitative data was the emotional ambiguity introduced by the institutional Church. Interviewees described a persistent tension between the theological vision of a nurturing, incarnational community and the lived reality of bureaucratic complexity, managerial expectations and institutional vulnerability. Archdeacon BID noted, ‘We are still pastors… pastoral responsibility is so stressful. “Charm” and “malice” are the only tools Archdeacons have’. The institutional Church, while committed to grace and communion, can become a site of emotional burden and procedural strain. Archdeacon DUR offered a sobering insight: ‘It’ll already have been a problem in their role by the time I encounter it’. This suggests that emotional dislocation often precedes formal intervention and may remain hidden until it surfaces in crisis. Archdeacon KOR added, ‘The ones [ministers] that make one deeply depressed… are the ones who don’t seem competent on any level… about which one finds oneself powerless to do anything’. These reflections underscore the need for ecclesial structures that attend to emotional and spiritual wellbeing alongside performance and accountability. Institutional dissonance contributes significantly to clergy emotional ecology. It creates a form of emotional dislocation, where priests must shift between pastoral, strategic and spiritual registers without a clear framework. The resulting cognitive and emotional load can lead to disorientation and stress. Theologically, such experiences may be interpreted through the lens of ecclesial brokenness: the Church, as both divine mystery and human institution, may be a site of grace and of harm. Emotional intelligence in this context involves empathic attunement and theological discernment, an ability to locate emotional responses within the tensions of eschatological hope and institutional imperfection. Further, said Archdeacon TAS, ‘If you haven’t got the support networks collegially with fellow clergy… then I think you are struggling more now than you ever would in the past’. Gendered dimensions of emotional dislocation also emerged. Female interviewees reported heightened expectations to provide emotional support while navigating institutional structures perceived as less responsive to their own emotional needs (cf. Jones et al., Reference Jones, Francis and Jackson2004; Miles and Proeschold-Bell, Reference Miles and Proeschold-Bell2012; contra Holleman, Reference Holleman2023). Archdeacon BID shared, ‘There’s this invisible expectation that I’ll just manage, it’s as if emotional exhaustion is part of the job description, especially for women’. These insights call for a more nuanced and inclusive approach to clergy wellbeing, one that recognizes the emotional complexity of ministerial life across diverse experiences.

Emotional Boundaries and Pastoral Vulnerability

Secular literature on EI often promotes detachment as a strategy for professional resilience (Tobin, Reference Tobin2005; Sheng et al., Reference Sheng, Zheng, Wang and Xu2025). In contrast, Anglican clergy describe a more relational and discerning approach to emotional boundaries, one shaped by theological conviction and pastoral experience. Vulnerability, when exercised wisely, becomes a virtue rooted in the incarnational and sacramental life of the Church. Archdeacon BAB shared, ‘I’ve cried at funerals, and that deepened my ministry’. Emotional transparency, far from diminishing pastoral authority, can serve as a sacramental sign of shared humanity and divine compassion. Archdeacon BEV reflected on bereavement ministry: ‘A good funeral visit… you are intensely, intentionally carving out space where they can talk with a stranger… that honouring process… can be incredibly healing because somebody else noticed’. These accounts affirm that vulnerability, when held within theological and pastoral discernment, enriches ministerial presence. Such vulnerability requires spiritual resilience. Archdeacon BID observed, ‘You have to be sure enough in yourself – of who you are, who God is, what your ministry is… all of those sorts of things that contribute to your ability to be emotionally intelligent’. Emotional boundaries, in this view, are shaped less by rigid separation and more by theological discernment, an attentiveness to context, vocation and relational depth. The literature on clergy wellbeing increasingly affirms the need to understand emotional boundaries through both theological and empirical lenses, attending to personality, psychological type, and patterns of ministerial engagement (Hydinger et al., Reference Hydinger, Wu, Captari and Sandage2024). This study extends that tradition by suggesting that emotional boundaries are best understood as relational and contextual discernments. Emotional intelligence, in this frame, involves wise availability, an ability to recognize when emotional risk serves pastoral presence and when it threatens vocational sustainability.

The Hiddenness of Clergy Emotion and the Need for Reflective Space

A recurring theme in this research is the hiddenness of clergy’s emotional life. Priests are often expected to offer emotional support, yet they describe few spaces where their own emotions can be named, explored or held. Ecclesial cultures that emphasize strength, constancy and availability may inadvertently discourage emotional articulation. Archdeacon BID reflected, ‘We might talk about reflective practice and theological reflection during training, but I’m unsure we continue it hugely… people can fall out of the habit’. The absence of sustained reflective space can hinder emotional integration and vocational clarity. Archdeacon BAB described a personal strategy for emotional awareness: ‘I’ve got a list of the things I need to remember as part of my coaching… as people are sitting here chatting, I’m literally reading it off the wall’. This approach, while pragmatic, reflects a culture of over-responsibility and limited space for emotional reflection. Theologically, it signals a gap between the Church’s vision of community and its actual support structures for clergy. Archdeacon KOR offered a candid reflection: ‘How do people deal with the sort of mood that is actually “I would rather like to take the teeth out of everybody who crosses the threshold this morning”?’ This comment underscores the need for theological formation that embraces emotional truthfulness as part of spiritual maturity. The sacramental life of the Church, centred on presence, communion and vulnerability, ought to be mirrored in its care for those who bear its pastoral and liturgical responsibilities. This study affirms the importance of reflective practice in cultivating emotionally attuned ministry. Participants identified spiritual direction, theological supervision and peer reflection groups as vital sources of emotional renewal. One Archdeacon shared, ‘My supervision group is where I can be fully human, not just the priest who’s got it together’. These practices enable clergy to integrate emotion within theological and communal frameworks, moving from coping towards transformation. This emphasis on reflective space aligns with calls for greater attention to affective learning in theological education (Emslie, Reference Emslie2016; Francis, Reference Francis2020). Emotion, rather than being treated as a pastoral outcome or managerial risk, must be engaged as a site of theological enquiry and spiritual formation. Emotional intelligence in ministry is shaped through doxology, scripture and sacramental encounter.

Mapping a Theological Emotional Ecology

The insights gathered through this research point towards a more nuanced and theologically resonant model of emotionally attuned ministry. The emotional ecology of Anglican clergy is shaped by liturgical cycles, sacramental embodiment, institutional complexity and pastoral encounters marked by both joy and suffering. Emotional intelligence, in this context, is best understood as spiritual attentiveness, a capacity to be present, vulnerable and discerning amid competing demands and graced possibilities. This reframing invites a broader ecclesial response. If EI is integral to priestly identity, it must be nurtured accordingly, through theological education that integrates intellect and affect, through ministerial development that prioritizes reflective practice and through ecclesial cultures that honour emotional truthfulness as part of spiritual maturity. The emotional ecology of clergy life is more than a site of pressure or peril; it is a field of divine engagement. Within this space, the Spirit continues to form Christ in and through the ministers of the Church. Emotional intelligence, when understood sacramentally, becomes a theological virtue, cultivated through presence, sustained by grace and offered for the healing of the Church and the world.

Rethinking Ministerial Formation: Beyond Competency-Based Models

Contemporary approaches to ministerial training have increasingly adopted competency-based frameworks, emphasizing measurable skills, outcomes and professional standards (Reichard, Reference Reichard2010; Mwangi and De Klerk, Reference Mwangi and De Klerk2011; Anderson, Reference Anderson2025). While these models provide clarity and accountability, they may overlook the affective and spiritual dimensions of priesthood. When EI is treated as a transferable skill, it risks becoming another item on a checklist, evaluated for adequacy rather than nurtured as vocation. A sacramental model of EI challenges this reduction. Emotional intelligence is not an isolated competency; it is a disposition of attentiveness and presence, formed through reflection, relationship, worship, and theological discernment. Ministerial formation must therefore embrace integrative pedagogies that engage the whole person, heart and head, emotion and cognition and being and doing. This integrative approach calls for the intentional inclusion of emotional literacy within theological education. Modules in practical theology, pastoral care and reflective practice must move beyond simulation and case study to create space for ordinands to explore their affective histories, relational patterns and emotional theologies. A response to a clergy seminar led by the writer on EI and ministry stated: ‘We need to talk about what it means to feel as priests, to name our emotions and know they’re not outside the Gospel’. Such naming is not self-indulgent; it is formational, as it prepares clergy to navigate emotional complexity with theological depth and pastoral wisdom. Theological colleges and diocesan programmes must also offer sustained opportunities for supervised placements in contexts that stretch emotional capacity and invite reflective integration. Settings such as hospices, prisons and mental health chaplaincy, when paired with structured theological reflection, become crucibles for sacramental ministry. In these spaces, ordinands encounter raw human emotion and must engage their own affective responses in the light of vocation and grace. Formation here becomes ecclesiological, a learning to be Church in the affective crucible of the world. Archdeacon BED observed, ‘We might talk about reflective practice and theological reflection during training, but I’m unsure we continue it hugely… people can fall out of the habit’. This insight affirms the need for emotional literacy and theological reflection to be sustained throughout ministerial life. Formation must extend beyond initial training, nurturing the whole person in ongoing vocational development.

Emotional Intelligence and Discernment for Ordained Ministry

A sacramental understanding of EI carries significant implications for the processes of selection and discernment in ordained ministry. The Church has long sought candidates who demonstrate spiritual depth, intellectual capacity and pastoral sensitivity. Yet emotional attunement, particularly when framed theologically, has often remained implicit, valued but undefined, assumed rather than explored. Archdeacon TIF reflected,

This comment illustrates how EI is often cultivated informally, through experience and attentiveness, rather than through structured discernment or explicit formation. Emslie’s (Reference Emslie2021) research revealed that clergy sometimes encountered emotional challenges for which they felt unprepared. These findings affirm the importance of attending to emotional patterns during discernment, not in pursuit of idealized personality traits, but in recognition of self-awareness, relational capacity and spiritual openness. Discernment panels and vocations advisers may benefit from a clearer theological framework for emotionally attuned ministry. Such a framework would distinguish emotional intelligence from emotionality, and instead emphasize the integration of affect with vocation. It would encourage interviewers to explore how candidates narrate their emotional lives, respond pastorally to others and interpret affective experience in light of faith. Training for those involved in discernment should include theological and psychological perspectives on emotion, alongside guidance for engaging emotional themes with sensitivity. A question such as, ‘Can you share a time when you felt overwhelmed, and how you made theological sense of that?’ opens space for reflection that reveals more than aptitude; it invites authentic engagement with the emotional dimensions of priestly life.

Cultivating Reflective Practice as Spiritual Discipline

The development of emotionally intelligent clergy requires the normalization of reflective practice as a core spiritual discipline. While most dioceses offer ministerial review and a few pastoral supervision, these processes often remain shaped by administrative or safeguarding priorities. A sacramental approach to EI invites a richer vision: reflective practice as a means of cultivating attentiveness to God, self and others in the emotional dimensions of ministry. Archdeacon CAV asked, ‘Can emotional intelligence be learned? I absolutely think so. But it comes from self-reflection’. This perspective affirms EI as a disposition formed through sustained habits of discernment and theological attentiveness. There is a strong research tradition advocating for the use of psychological measures in vocational discernment and ministerial development (Plante et al., Reference Plante, Aldridge and Louie2005; Francis and Crea, Reference Francis and Crea2019; Cook et al., Reference Cook, Francis and McKenna2024). When integrated with theological reflection and emotional awareness, such tools help clergy understand their emotional defaults and discern when those patterns support or hinder pastoral presence. Emslie’s (Reference Emslie2021) research revealed that many clergy would welcome deeper opportunities to explore their emotional selves within theological frameworks. Archdeacon BID shared, ‘I know I carry things emotionally, but I’ve never had space to make theological sense of that’. Dioceses and training institutions must embed reflective practices throughout ministerial life. Archdeacon TOS warned, ‘To preserve higher functioning levels of EI, ministers need emotional support… collegiate support, because otherwise you just become… a functionary’. This insight highlights the importance of relational and spiritual support in sustaining emotionally attuned ministry. Formation must move beyond isolated competencies to foster communal practices that nurture emotional resilience and theological presence. Regular supervision, spiritual direction and peer support groups should be resourced as ecclesial commitments to priestly health. These practices offer space for emotional processing, the naming of loss and ambiguity and the integration of experience with theological identity. They are, in essence, liturgies of reflection, sacraments of pastoral attentiveness that form emotionally literate clergy for the long haul.

Reshaping Ecclesial Leadership through Affective Presence

The culture of ecclesial leadership also stands to be enriched by a sacramental model of EI. Anglican leadership discourse has drawn on various models – strategic, collaborative and servant leadership – all seeking to articulate faithful practice in changing contexts. Affective presence adds a vital dimension: leadership grounded in self-awareness, attentiveness, vulnerability and theological discernment. Clergy leadership is shaped less by strategy and more by presence. Priests serve as emotional and theological anchors within their communities, mediating the compassion of Christ and enabling others to flourish. This research suggests that clergy who embody such presence may not always be the most administratively gifted or overtly charismatic, but they are often deeply trusted, emotionally attuned and spiritually grounded. Archdeacon TAS emphasized the importance of relational capacity: ‘To be able to work with lay, to be able to develop lay people into leadership, to be able to make the church relevant to the wider community so it becomes a community church… these things require strong relational capacity’. TAS’s insight affirms that effective leadership arises from theological imagination and emotional presence, rather than managerial technique. This vision invites a reconsideration of how bishops, archdeacons and senior leaders support and evaluate clergy. While metrics and targets may serve administrative functions, they must not eclipse the intangible yet essential qualities of emotional and spiritual presence. Dioceses might invest in leadership development that includes affective formation – retreats, mentoring and peer reflection – not as enrichment but as spiritual necessity. The modelling of emotionally intelligent leadership begins with those in senior roles. When bishops and senior staff demonstrate empathy, share vulnerability and prioritize reflective space, they foster diocesan cultures in which clergy feel safe to do the same. When they attend to the emotional lives of their clergy, in both ordinary and difficult seasons, they affirm emotion as a gift to be stewarded within the life of the Church.

Towards a Culture of Theological and Emotional Maturity

The implications of a sacramental and theological model of EI extend beyond formation and leadership into the wider culture of the Church. Such a model calls for an ecclesiology that values emotional truthfulness as part of spiritual maturity, honours affective labour as priestly offering, and attends to both the human cost and divine grace of ministry. This culture must be cultivated intentionally. It requires a Church willing to engage its own affective ambivalence, its discomfort with vulnerability, its hesitancy around emotion and its tendency to prioritize performance over presence. It calls for theological education that integrates emotion with doctrine, spirituality with psychology. It invites liturgical communities to make space for lament as well as praise, for complexity as well as clarity. Emotional intelligence in Anglican ministry is more than a matter of resilience or wellbeing, though these remain important. It is a participation in the emotional life of God, a divine compassion that weeps over Jerusalem, rejoices at the return of the lost and suffers for the healing of the world. To form clergy in this emotional pattern is to form them in Christ. To lead the Church with such presence is to manifest, in broken bread and broken hearts, the mystery of love that holds all things together. In a time of fraught leadership, Percy (2024) calls for a renewed ecclesial future: