What happens when a group of fiercely independent and culturally vibrant city-states fall under the control of a powerful external empire? Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit, according to Horace (Epist. 2.1.156). In this book O. suggests that the relationship between the Iron Age city-states of the north-east Mediterranean and the Neo-Assyrian Empire might have been somewhat similar.
Scholarship has long struggled to characterise the city-states that occupied northern Syria and southern Anatolia during the Iron Age (c. 1200–650 bce). Their kings left monumental inscriptions in a mixture of Luwian, Phoenician and Aramaean; their populations included migrants from the southern Levant, northern Mesopotamia, central Anatolia and the Aegean; and their material culture blends styles and technologies from across the eastern Mediterranean and the Near East. According to O. this fundamental hybridity is one of the most important reasons to re-evaluate what he calls the ‘Syro-Anatolian Culture Complex’ (SACC). One can see why these autonomous multicultural mini-states, perched precariously on the edge of an expanding territorial empire, might well hold broader interest for readers beyond those specialising in the Near Eastern Iron Age.
The book opens with a general introduction, which sets out the historical and chronological frameworks and defines key terms. A major aim of this first chapter is to explain the logic behind O.'s concept of the ‘Culture Complex’, which brings together a set of archaeological sites that are often discussed separately. Embracing the diversity within and across these city-states, O. argues, is vital as it allows us better to appreciate the dynamics of the peer polity interaction between them. The approach of this book, we are told, is therefore to offer a synchronous ‘portrait’ of the city-states of the SACC, rather than a historical narrative that details change over time, thereby capturing something of their shared holistic nature (pp. 11–12).
In the second chapter O. discusses migration into and around the region in the Early Iron Age. We hear about the ruralisation of the Aramaean population, the arrival of Luwian-speaking people from central Anatolia and the possibility that the region also saw smaller numbers of migrants from the Aegean. The evidence for all this, O. admits, is unfortunately limited. While changing settlement patterns point convincingly to rural dispersal, our reconstruction of other population movements relies significantly on linguistic and/or myth-historical sources. The specifics of individual migratory movements aside, O.'s characterisation of the SACC as a hybridised cultural space is compelling.
The third chapter considers mobility, primarily focusing on two types of object at opposite ends of the portability scale. On the one hand, there is a rich discussion of the networks implicated in the production and consumption of carved ivory products. On the other, we read about the remarkable practice of moving and reusing monumental carved stone orthostats, sometimes transferring them over substantial distances in what must have been spectacular performances of state power. The comparison of these two very different categories of mobile artefacts is instructive and nicely illustrates O.'s argument about movement being a fundamental part of the fabric of life. A further section, addressing the likely presence of Phoenician migrants, might have fitted more comfortably alongside the discussions of other migrant groups in the second chapter. This section argues for the use of Phoenician as a living language in the SACC area, by considering the monumental Phoenician inscriptions of southern Anatolia (primarily in Cilicia but also in the Konya Plain) in the context of a less well-known body of smaller inscribed objects. This argument, primarily based on language use, might have been strengthened by considering archaeological and other forms of evidence (e.g. the presence of Astarte-type figurines in Rough Cilicia implying some familiarity with Phoenician cult practices).
Interactions with Assyria are the focus of the fourth chapter. O. puts forward the case that, while this relationship was marked by a power asymmetry, there is more to this story than simply one-sided Assyrian domination. Complex diplomatic strategies adopted by different SACC states led to varying degrees of cultural appropriation and accommodation, and there are signs that Assyria looked to the sophisticated and prosperous cities of the SACC as centres of valuable cultural capital. As the chapter progresses, we are treated to an astute reading of the mixed cultural messages embodied in the statue of Hadd-yit'I from Tell Fakhariyah and a site-by-site analysis of how monumental architecture from the SACC was incorporated into the Assyrian palatial idiom.
The fifth and final substantive chapter considers space and power at varying scales of analysis. Starting with territoriality, O. points out that what initially seems to be a standard three-tier settlement hierarchy does not always fit with the shifting spheres of political control. We read next about the organisation of space within SACC cities, although, given the lack of evidence on this subject, the discussion is limited to monumental gateways and royal palaces. A satisfying, more ‘bottom-up’ treatment of space within smaller towns and villages appears later in the chapter, offering opportunities to reflect on the limits of our knowledge concerning urban space. We also read about the structuring of space within royal palaces. This is analysed using techniques from space syntax, with the conclusion that the centrality of the throne, royal power and royal symbolism recurred both at the scale of the palace and of the city, acting like a ‘strange loop’ (p. 176).
The book closes with a summary of previous chapters and a nod towards future directions of research. Thus far, the prose has been sharp and the narrative fast-paced, and it comes almost as a surprise that O. has not, until this point, set out clear criteria for what belongs, and what does not belong, within the SACC. A list of ten cultural commonalities is set out here, which O. claims tie the disparate city-states into a shared cultural system. This is followed by an acknowledgement of the fuzzy geographic boundaries of the SACC (p. 218). In particular, it is unclear how far west and north the cultural complex extends – the Konya Plain is certainly included, but the status of Rough Cilicia and the Phrygian heartland remains more ambiguous. Although this is not one of the likely future directions for research identified by O. in this chapter, the geographical extent of the SACC does seem to be a topic that warrants further investigation.
O. has produced a book that is compelling in its argument and energetic in its scholarship. The book is proudly omnivorous, devouring a wide range of ancient source material as well as a variety of anthropological and social theories. I must admit that I did not always understand the importance of the latter in their context – I am still uncertain why we need theories of diaspora, for example, to appreciate the hybridisation discussed in Chapter 2. But this is not the point, as O.'s overall approach is appropriate for his subject matter. The protean diversity of his method matches perfectly the protean diversity of the Syro-Anatolian city-states, and O. is successful in painting his portrait of them in glorious technicolour.
