The use and cultural importance of statuary in the Roman Empire was the subject of an important study published a few years ago by Peter Stewart: The Social History of Roman Art (2008). Stewart argued that statuary had a specific rôle and function in the Empire. This rôle becomes substantially transformed in Late Antiquity and up to the sixth century. As pointed out by Bert Smith in the case of the baths at Aphrodisias, statues were crowded into the urban landscape and often placed without any regard to the surrounding architectural framework (R. R. R. Smith, ‘Late antique portraits in a public context: honorific statuary at Aphrodisias in Caria A.D. 300–600’, JRS 89 (1999), 155–89). The reuse of statues became a common feature fundamental to the process of refurbishment in late antique cities, and in some cases the path from transfer to reuse is also mentioned in inscriptions (see, for example, C. Lepelley, Cahiers Archéologiques 42 (1994), 5–13).

The ultimate fate of statues, however, from Late Antiquity onwards, is very varied. One ‘afterlife’ is their inclusion in the private collections of wealthy élites. This activity is attested in a few cases across the Roman Empire, but it is difficult archaeologically to outline the process of formation that these collections underwent. It can reasonably be argued that a market for statues existed and that they were sometimes sold by cities themselves, although it is impossible clearly to reconstruct any commercial networks. Without doubt, statues could travel long distances in addition to being sold locally or regionally; presumably provenance also helped to determine value. Display in a private collection — or public, as in the case of the temple of Apollo in Bulla Regia — indicates a clear change in the perception of these statues, which now became works of art (see, generally, A. Leone, The End of the Pagan City: Religion, Economy and Urbanism in Late Antique North Africa (2013)). The reuse of statues also often implied that statue heads were re-carved and modified, or detached and sold to private collectors to be displayed as busts. Statues also faced outright destruction: they might be defaced or broken, or intentionally marked with religious symbols. However these were extreme cases, often connected to religious fanaticism. The archaeological evidence seems to indicate that these kinds of actions were more common in the East than the West. However, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions on any destructive activity unless the evidence is very clear and the excavations were carried out stratigraphically.

The study of the fate of statues and the change in their meaning and function after Late Antiquity has been of great interest in recent years. Both Making and Breaking the Gods and Using Images in Late Antiquity tackle these problems, albeit from different perspectives, while providing insight into the actual treatment of statues beginning in Late Antiquity.

Using Images in Late Antiquity is an edited volume whose papers address different aspects of the changes in statuary practice in Late Antiquity. The approach is broadly thematic and geographical. The papers are in English (save two in Italian). The book contains a brief introduction by the editors, which indicates that its main aim is to reflect on the active rôle of statuary and architecture in a period of substantial socio-political, as well as economic, transformation. The introduction then offers a short summary of each paper. The first paper, by Paolo Liverani (in Italian) discusses the practice of using inscriptions in connection with images in Late Antiquity. In a very original way, Liverani deals with inscriptions in connection with the types of representations often associated with them, providing a new perspective on the interpretation of the use and function of these texts. The second paper, by Stine Birk, provides an overview of different types of self-representation on late antique sarcophagi. The paper discusses different traditions, considering mythological representations, pagan women and men, and Christian women and men. The approach reflects the complexity of late antique society and its varied representations. The next paper by Eric R. Varner offers a different approach, combining both architecture and representations. The paper focuses on the contrast between Maxentius and Constantine and how this difference is reflected in the architectural form of the city of Rome. In particular, considerable attention is paid to the Hadrianic temple of Venus and Rome, which was rebuilt by Maxentius, and the Arch of Constantine with its reused reliefs. The paper and its approach are rich and interesting (and based on an extensive bibliography). Varner offers some new arguments, particularly on the use of buildings and images for propaganda, but the paper would perhaps have benefited from some clearer conclusions stressing the main issues at stake and the similarities/differences between the two emperors’ building programmes.

Sarah Bassett's paper focuses on honorific statuary. Statue dedications continued in the East for a longer period than the West, and evidence is found from the fourth to the seventh centuries. Continuity is to be seen as the combination of past and present traditions, in which old practices meld with new urban forms. The use of images recalls the Arch of Constantine, which combines reused sculptures with new works. The paper by Lea Stirling is one of the most original in this volume. It discusses the practice of collecting as it existed in Late Antiquity. The paper considers evidence from both private and public contexts. It draws out the perception of Greek originals in texts, and then analyses the statues in Constantinople, the use of these ‘originals’ in the new capital, the thematic displays in bath complexes, and statues in private villas. The type of representation in the latter two cases is connected to the interests of the respective owners.

Trinidad Basarrate's work offers a regional western perspective through an analysis of the statues displayed in both public and private contexts in Augusta Emerita and its territory. The paper by Ine Jacobs opens up a perspective on the fate of temples, investigating their destruction and dismantlement within the urban framework of eastern cities. The monumental appearance of Constantinople, Ravenna and Rome is the subject of Simon Malmberg's paper, which looks comparatively at the triumphal arches and gates in the different cities. In particular, the comparison is between palace gates and city gates, and their functional and symbolic differences. The analysis ultimately is embedded in a religious context. The paper by Hendrik Dey focuses on changing townscapes in the sixth century, and in particular looks at Alexandria and Jerusalem. The major focus is on representations of cities in the Madaba mosaic, which is unique in the corpus of mosaics that portray urban areas, and, in particular, exclusively eastern cities.

The last part of the book moves back to reconsider images, rather than the urban forms themselves and their representations. Birte Poulsen looks at the personification of cities, with the focus primarily on the East (Halikarnassos, Kos, Constantinople, Paphos and the Near East), although some general and brief references are made to the West along with a major consideration of the city of Rome. Issues of mythological and theatrical representations in mosaics are considered in a paper by Katherine Dunbabin; in this case too, the main focus is on the East. Arnaldo Marcone's paper (in Italian) addresses a topic that has long been debated: the connection between the classical tradition and the development of Christian art and iconography. Marcone's analysis is based on a consideration of a number of silver objects. The approach to, and study of, the function and use of columns by Troels Kristensen is highly original. It looks at both pagan columns in Christian texts and Christian images on pagan columns, offering a new way of interpreting and reading the surviving evidence. The last paper, by Katharina Meinecke, considers material which does not find any parallel in the rest of the volume: the use of images in the Sasanian Empire. The paper provides a fresh and much needed perspective. Its inclusion is significant, as it clearly shows how the use of images was very different outside the Roman Empire, although at times mutually influenced.

Overall, this volume has a pleasing number of original papers, innovative in their approaches and content. A bonus is the use of colour plates. The various papers, however, lack homogeneity, and it is sometimes difficult to find a common thread that might link together the different parts of the book into a more coherent whole.

The issue of images and statuary is also the subject of the book by Troels Myrup Kristensen. It addresses one specific aspect of statuary in Late Antiquity: its fate after the diffusion of Christianization. This volume offers a valuable contribution to the analysis of the changing use of statuary, in particular the pagan statuary of Late Antiquity. K. has already addressed this issue in several papers, and the content of this book is not entirely new. Despite this, the book is certainly important reading for anyone working on the conflict/transition from paganism to Christianity. The focus of the book is entirely eastern, looking at Egypt and the Near East. The eastern part of the Roman Empire is also the region where there is more archaeological evidence, specifically for the destruction or re-appropriation of statues. The book is beautifully illustrated with colour plates. The initial section offers an interdisciplinary perspective, looking at textual evidence referencing statuary and its destruction. The overall analysis of the book concentrates primarily on the destruction and appropriation of statues by Christian communities by marking them with crosses on the chests and foreheads. Although statuary and its fate is the underpinning theme of the volume, the discussion (as in Using Images in Late Antiquity) goes well beyond a consideration of the sculpted material. The display of these statues is contextualized and put in its proper urban perspective. In this sense, K.’s book also provides material that is certainly of significance to scholars working on the transition of cities in Late Antiquity. The discussion is well balanced and does not focus exclusively on the destruction of idols, but also considers the transformation of the use of images in Late Antiquity. It is well written and its arguments are presented clearly. As a result, Making and Breaking the Gods could well be of interest to a more general reader. After all, the destruction of statues and the value given to these representations, especially by religious communities, are still very modern subjects.

In sum, Making and Breaking the Gods and Using Images in Late Antiquity are both informative reading. In some cases, the innovative and original approaches taken by the various authors offer new ideas and directions for future research. Certainly, both volumes are necessary reading for specialists on Late Antiquity.