The volume treats one of the most prolific of Greek votives – terracotta figurines – from the perspective of the objects’ life cycle from manufacture to termination. With the stated premise of investigating the seemingly ubiquitous presence of clay figurines in sanctuaries and their suitability as appropriate offerings, H. employs a methodological framework and various theoretical approaches aiming to establish both object agency and a more coherent understanding of Greek votive practices. This treatment permits an expansive assessment of clay figurines that goes beyond the more focused (and equally valuable) investigations that have addressed specific topics within coroplastic studies. The imposition of limits on the vast dataset of excavated clay figurines from sanctuary contexts allows H. to offer nuanced observations of how terracotta votives functioned over time.
Each of the six chapters builds upon the concept of object biography and consideration of the chaîne opératoire. Chapter 1 serves as an introduction, outlining the parameters of the study. The discussion of previous scholarship on Greek terracotta votives that provides summaries of key publications, beginning with R. Kekulé’s Griechische Thonfiguren aus Tanagra (1878) and continuing up to the present is valuable and not only substantiates H.’s command of the vast literature on the subject but also serves as a prelude to one of the most comprehensive bibliographies on coroplastic research, provided at the end of the volume. H. outlines the geographical and chronological boundaries of the study, which includes fifteen selected sites in mainland Greece, Magna Graecia and Asia Minor, beginning with the early Archaic period, which saw a dramatic increase in the dedication of votive figurines, and continuing to the late Hellenistic period, when the practice waned in preference for other votive types. The focus is on specific sanctuaries where a single female deity has been identified, which allows for consideration of attributes and iconography as markers of individual goddesses and as contributors to cultic meaning. The selection of sites is further refined by including those whose figurine corpus has not only been fully published but has also been explored within the larger votive assemblage of the site.
Chapter 2 considers two main issues involved in the early life cycle of figurines: manufacturing processes and transportation/distribution prior to dedication. The ready accessibility of clay and the introduction of the mould advanced mass production generating workshop presence in proximity to sanctuaries and locations of cult activity. H. concludes that information from selected sites suggests figurines were not produced within sacred areas but were crafted in mercantile locations easily accessible to consumers. Ample evidence indicates that figurines were part of extensive trade networks, and their substantial number confirms their desirability as a commodity across disparate areas.
In Chapter 3 H. offers discussion of how clay figurines functioned within sacred spaces. The rarity of figurines found in situ limits definitive conclusions about original placement, although material and visual evidence (e.g., vase painting depictions, sculptural representations of sacral areas, and cultic furniture and supports) as well as written sources suggest that placing, hanging and affixing votive figurines as close as possible to the cult image was the ideal. Figurine size allowed for massing of votives in large numbers, which probably was seen as reinforcing their efficacy. Iconographic renderings and attributes are considered to determine whether those aspects of clay votives lend to the identification of deities and their function. That the gender of the figurines aligns with the gender of the deity is not a surprising conclusion, but H. notes that it is unusual for a specific figurine type to be associated with a particular deity. Figurines tend to display universal attributes, albeit some exceptions (e.g., the inclusion of a torch as appropriate for Demeter). The identity of dedicators is considered, with iconographic and epigraphic evidence suggesting that women tend to be the primary dedicants with offerings often made on behalf of the family. How votive figurines were used in cult rituals is uncertain due to the absence of accompanying inscriptions, although the attachment of ephemeral materials (ribbons and wood) with formulaic prayers is likely. The offering of votives could be in tandem with a sacrifice, and both individual and group ritual activities were practised.
The next two chapters address what happened to figurines after their removal from within a sanctuary. Various factors determined when a votive offering might be relocated – damage, over-crowding and replacement with a more contemporary type. H. acknowledges that depositional contexts are not always readily identifiable, and since her dataset utilises only published material, conclusions depend on the accuracy and depth of treatment in archaeological reports and the coherency of a votive assemblage. There has been critical discussion as to what qualifies as a deposit and how an object (or groups of objects) can be recognised as votive once disengaged from a primary context. H. relies on criteria established by other scholars (notably R. Osborne and P. Pakkanen) in the discussion of depositional contexts of the sites treated: these include proximity to a sacral setting with distinctive architecture, careful placement of large numbers of objects with some produced from valuable materials, the presence of religious/symbolic imagery, immediacy of non-functional objects and indication of formal treatment as possible markers. That terracotta figurines were crafted from a common material and without the display of specific religious iconography compounds the identification of votive deposits. The meat of Chapter 4, ‘Depositing and Discarding’, focuses on the secondary deposits identified at the archaeological sites selected. Along with brief discussions of the excavations, detailed plans of the sites with identification of deposits marked are helpful to visualise the distance between probable primary and secondary deposits; however, for some complicated sites, enlargement and labelling of the plans would have been welcome. Although the deposition contexts vary, many of the objects reflect some of the criteria that would qualify them as votive. An important conclusion is that deposition appears to have been a careful process, suggesting that the placement of large numbers of figurines, some with deliberate breakage, signifies that the collected aggregate was still regarded as powerful. The deposition might well be regarded as a ritual act and as a means of preserving votive offerings. In cases in which it has been possible to date the accumulated votive assemblages in secondary deposits, it seems that votives were collected and redeposited after a lengthy period of time since their initial dedication. In sum, the relocation of votive material was not undertaken with any frequency and, perhaps, with some reluctance.
Chapter 5, ‘Transformation and Termination’, continues the discussion of the life of a votive figurine after its removal from its cult setting. H. focuses on the eventual extinction of terracotta figurines after their value as votive objects declined. Determining how figurines continued to contribute to votive practice is difficult, but stylistic development, identifiable motifs and quantity of objects offer significant conclusions. H. suggests that the realism of Tanagra figurines with their uniform style and limited repertoire of motifs might have contributed to their being less appropriate to sacred contexts and more suitable for domestic cults and funerary practices. The acceptance of foreign cults in the late fourth and third centuries bce could have motivated changes in cult practices to which the dedication of clay figurines had previously contributed. Considering the totality of votive assemblages, the increase in the number of lamps suggests a development of rituals so that figurines were passed over in preference for other cultic options. By the end of the Hellenistic period the numbers of clay figurines as votive objects had declined markedly, probably as the result of cultural, social and religious developments.
The final chapter, ‘Discussion and Conclusions’, offers a comprehensive summary of the evidence presented; H. provides succinct conclusions that merit consideration. One could argue that those observations might not stand the test if the votive dataset had been expanded to include sanctuaries of male deities or ones beyond the geographic limits of the investigation. Nevertheless, H. provides a thorough assessment augmented by the inclusion of various tables that list typologies and figure attributes per chronological period, the contents of votive assemblages, and tabulation of clay figurines for each sanctuary presented. Numerous site plans and high-quality images supplement the text, and the ample listing of cited sources and an extensive bibliography complement an already masterful volume. Approaching votive figurines from the perspective of object biography results in an engagement with the material on multiple levels that advances the field of coroplastic studies.
