2. Problem statement

It has only been in the last few years that convincing experimental data have proven, in practice, the efficiency of grasping methods. Nevertheless, the grasping techniques are often applied for picking objects on planar surfaces such as a table [Reference Morrison, Corke and Leitner1] or in a bin [Reference Mahler, Matl, Satish, Danielczuk, DeRose, McKinley and Goldberg2, Reference Morrison, Corke and Leitner15]. This workspace (table and bin) offers relatively simple test benches to evaluate the grasping performances if compared with constrained spaces such as inside 3D printers. Therefore, 4D grasping methods (also called planar grasps) are enough to generate feasible grasps for planar surfaces but not are suitable for constrained spaces such as inside 3D printers.

To perform grasp in constrained spaces, such as inside 3D printers, it is required to avoid collisions with nearby obstacles such as the printer bed. Therefore, it is necessary to generate a set of feasible grasps with different positions and orientations for the same object, since some grasps are in collision with obstacles in the workspace or kinematically infeasible. The description of the symbols used in this article is as follows:

RGB image. $\boldsymbol{C}_{\boldsymbol{i}}$ expresses a raw 8-bit RGB image.

Depth image. Let $\boldsymbol{I}$ be an 8-bit 2.5D depth image in which every object in the environment is considered. $H$ and $W$ represent the height and the width of this image, respectively.

Segmentation mask. $\boldsymbol{M}_{\boldsymbol{r}}$ represents the object segmentation mask.

Object point cloud. $\boldsymbol{N}_{\boldsymbol{r}}$ evidences the detected object point cloud.

Filtered object point cloud. $\boldsymbol{N}_{\boldsymbol{f}}$ represents the filtered point cloud of the detected object.

Printer point cloud. $\boldsymbol{K}_{\boldsymbol{r}}$ represents the raw point cloud of the 3D printer.

Downsampled printer point cloud. $\boldsymbol{K}_{\boldsymbol{d}}$ denotes the downsampled point cloud of the 3D printer.

Grasp set. ${\tilde{\boldsymbol{G}}_{\boldsymbol{g}}} = ({\tilde{\boldsymbol{P}}}, {\tilde{\boldsymbol{O}}})$ denotes a 6D grasps set, in which ${\tilde{\boldsymbol{P}}}$ and ${\tilde{\boldsymbol{O}}}$ denote the position and orientation angles, respectively, relative to the camera frame.

Filtered grasps. $\boldsymbol{G}_{\boldsymbol{gf}} = (\boldsymbol{P}_{\boldsymbol{gf}}, \boldsymbol{O}_{\boldsymbol{gf}})$ represents the position $\boldsymbol{P}_{\boldsymbol{gf}}$ and orientation $\boldsymbol{O}_{\boldsymbol{gf}}$ of the filtered grasps by applying the heuristics described in Section 3, relative to the camera frame.

Collision-free grasps. $\boldsymbol{G}_{\boldsymbol{o}} = (\boldsymbol{P}_{\boldsymbol{o}}, \boldsymbol{O}_{\boldsymbol{o}})$ denote the position $\boldsymbol{P}_{\boldsymbol{o}}$ and orientation $\boldsymbol{O}_{\boldsymbol{o}}$ of the collision-free grasps, relative to the robot base coordinate frame.

Grasp on the robot base coordinate frame. $\boldsymbol{G}_{\boldsymbol{fb}} = (\boldsymbol{P}_{\boldsymbol{fb}}, \boldsymbol{O}_{\boldsymbol{fb}})$ represents the position $\boldsymbol{P}_{\boldsymbol{fb}}$ and orientation $\boldsymbol{O}_{\boldsymbol{fb}}$ of the collision-free grasps, relative to the robot base coordinate frame.

Current gripper pose. $\boldsymbol{G}_{\boldsymbol{a}} = (\boldsymbol{P}_{\boldsymbol{a}}, \boldsymbol{O}_{\boldsymbol{a}})$ describes the actual gripper position $\boldsymbol{P}_{\boldsymbol{a}}$ and orientation $\boldsymbol{O}_{\boldsymbol{a}}$ , relative to the robot base coordinate frame.

3. Grasping pipeline

The proposed grasping pipeline is shown in Fig. 2, with the subsequent stages:

Figure 2.

Grasping pipeline.

1. 1. The initial state of the robot $\boldsymbol{G}_{\boldsymbol{a}}$ is stored.

2. 2. The image $\boldsymbol{C}_{\boldsymbol{i}}$ is obtained by positioning the gripper in the front of the 3D printer.

3. 3. The Mask R-CNN receives an image $\boldsymbol{C}_{\boldsymbol{i}}$ as input and generate a mask $\boldsymbol{M}_{\boldsymbol{r}}$ .

4. 4. The mask $\boldsymbol{M}_{\boldsymbol{r}}$ is copied to the depth image $\boldsymbol{I}$ .

5. 5. The pixels of the image $\boldsymbol{I}$ are selected by using the mask $\boldsymbol{M}_{\boldsymbol{r}}$ . The point cloud $\boldsymbol{N}_{\boldsymbol{r}}$ is generated by using a backprojection algorithm in the selected pixels of the image $\boldsymbol{I}$ .

6. 6. A statistical outlier removal filter [Reference Zhou, Park and Koltun34] is applied in the point cloud $\boldsymbol{N}_{\boldsymbol{r}}$ to generate a new point cloud $\boldsymbol{N}_{\boldsymbol{f}}$ .

7. 7. The printer point cloud $\boldsymbol{K}_{\boldsymbol{r}}$ is acquired.

8. 8. $\boldsymbol{K}_{\boldsymbol{r}}$ is downsampled to generate a new point cloud $\boldsymbol{K}_{\boldsymbol{d}}$ .

9. 9. $\boldsymbol{N}_{\boldsymbol{f}}$ is used as input to GraspNet to generate a set of 6D grasps $\tilde{\boldsymbol{G}_{\boldsymbol{g}}}$ .

10. 10. $\boldsymbol{G}_{\boldsymbol{gf}}$ is selected from $\tilde{\boldsymbol{G}_{\boldsymbol{g}}}$ considering the grasps with a score greater than $80\%$ and $\boldsymbol{O}_{\boldsymbol{gf}}$ closer to $\boldsymbol{O}_{\boldsymbol{a}}$ , so:

    (1) \begin{equation} \boldsymbol{G}_{\boldsymbol{gf}} = O_{a} - \tilde{O} \lt O_m \end{equation}
    in which $\boldsymbol{G}_{\boldsymbol{gf}}$ is a set of grasps next to $\boldsymbol{G}_{\boldsymbol{a}}$ taking into account a predetermined interval $O_{m}$ .

11. 11. Each grasp of $\boldsymbol{G}_{\boldsymbol{gf}}$ is rejected if any point of the point cloud $\boldsymbol{K}_{\boldsymbol{a}}$ lies inside the Robotiq 2F-140 gripper mesh.

12. 12. The grasp without collision $\boldsymbol{G}_{\boldsymbol{o}}$ is obtained.

13. 13. The final grasp $\boldsymbol{G}_{\boldsymbol{fb}}$ is reached by using a quintic polynomial trajectory planning.

Summarizing, after a detection of an object of interest, a pixel-wise segmentation algorithm is applied to create a mask of the objects using RGB images. This mask is used to segment the object in the depth image and then generate a point cloud by using a back-projection algorithm. The point cloud of the object is used to generate a 6D grasp, and the point cloud of the environment is used to check if the generated grasp collides with obstacles. Besides this, each grasp is discarded if it is not kinematic viable.

4. Object recognition and instance segmentation

Mask R-CNN [Reference He, Gkioxari, Dollár and Girshick35] is a deep learning-based object detection and segmentation algorithm. It adds a branch in Faster R-CNN [Reference Ren, He, Girshick and Sun36] to predict segmentation masks. The mask branch downgrades the performance of the object detection but is still able to reach better performance and accuracy than the COCO instance segmentation task winner in 2016. Mask R-CNN runs at $5$ fps on an NVIDIA Tesla M40 GPU.

The layer applied in Faster R-CNN after the Region Proposal Network was used to extract features to classify and apply box regression. It was not designed for pixel-to-pixel alignment between network inputs and outputs. To solve this problem, a quantization-free layer, called RolAlign, that maintains spatial locations, was applied in ref. [Reference He, Gkioxari, Dollár and Girshick35]. The classes’ mask is inferred independently and depends on the RoIAlign to classify and predict categories as is also done on Faster R-CNN.

For each RGB image, Mask R-CNN outputs a segmentation mask, bounding box, and label for each object. Mask R-CNN also requires a backbone architecture. Results show that using a better feature extractor network such as ResNeXt-101-FPN [Reference Xie, Girshick, Dollár, Tu and He37] instead of ResNet-50-FPN [Reference Lin, Dollár, Girshick, He, Hariharan and Belongie38] improves the performance of the Mask R-CNN. In addition, the fully connected layers were removed to build a fully convolutional network. This improved the inference performance of the segmentation task.

4.1. Training and dataset

To detect and segment the object’s image, a fine-tune process was applied to the Mask R-CNN. Figure 3 shows the test objects proposed by ref. [Reference Mahler, Liang, Niyaz, Laskey, Doan, Liu, Ojea and Goldberg5] which were used to evaluate grasping methods due to their low graspability.

Figure 3.

Objects (real and synthetic) used to validate the grasping pipeline.

A synthetic dataset was generated using the Webots simulator by applying the following pipeline (Fig. 4):

Figure 4.

Dataset generation pipeline using the simulator Webots.

1. 1. An object is randomly positioned in a constrained space and an RGB image is captured by using a virtual camera;

2. 2. The RGB image is generated in simulation;

3. 3. It was noticed that the object is better segmented in the simulation if the RGB image is turned into a gray image;

4. 4. A bounding box is also automatically generated using the edges of the object’s contour extracted from the image;

5. 5. The contour is shown in the RGB image of stage 2;

6. 6. The object pixels in the synthetic RGB image are copied to real images with 3D printers, since the grasps are performed only in this space.

By applying this pipeline, $900$ images were created, $150$ for each object. The training set and validation set were divided into $80\%$ and $20\%$ , respectively. The average precision (AP), considering the average of IoU thresholds of 0.5:0.05:0.95, was $87.9\%$ for the segmentation task. This AP with averaging IoUs is used to determine the rank of the obstacle detection algorithms of the COCO challenge dataset.

The Mask R-CNN was pretrained on the COCO dataset and fine-tuned in 26 epochs. The learning rate was set to $0.0025$ with a decay of $10\%$ in epochs $17$ and $23$ . The Stochastic Gradient Descent was used with a weight decay of $0.0001$ and momentum of $0.9$ . The batch size was set to $2$ .

5. Grasps generation and collision detection using point clouds

GraspNet [Reference Mousavian, Eppner and Fox3] is a deep learning-based grasping generator [Reference Kingma and Welling39] consisting of an decoder and encoder trained using Simulated Grasp Trials (SGTs). GraspNet is based on PointNet++ [Reference Qi, Yi, Su and Guibas40] and extracts features from point clouds of the object and gripper for each grasp. This network contains a generator and evaluator module. The generator module takes the latent space samples, the object, and gripper’s point cloud to generate grasps. The evaluation module associates a probability of success for each grasp generated.

It is important to note that the 6D grasping generator was trained using SGTs, considering objects of simple geometry such as bowls, mugs, and boxes. Nevertheless, the objects employed for testing this grasp generator in this work were more complex, although it is still possible to achieve good grasping results as it generalizes well for new objects. Therefore, the 6D grasping generator applied in the grasping pipeline is not optimized to generate grasps for small objects. Consequently, it may take seconds to find a grasp for small objects.

As already mentioned, the 6D grasp generator applied is not capable of analyzing the workspace around the selected object to avoid collisions. To mitigate this problem, a new collision detection system was developed to discard grasps in collision with the environment by using the point cloud of the objects in the workspace.

A simplified mesh of the Robotiq 2F-140 gripper (Fig. 6b) was created to verify collisions with the workspace. For every new grasp generated, it is verified if this mesh collides with the point cloud of any object in the workspace. To check for collisions, it is calculated the signed distance between each point of the workspace’s point cloud and the boundaries of Robotiq 2F-140 collision mesh in the metric space $X$ with a subset $\Omega$ , and a metric $d$ , such that

(2) \begin{equation} f(x)=\left \{\begin{array}{l@{\quad}l} d(x, \partial \Omega ) & \text{ if } x \in \Omega \\[5pt] -d(x, \partial \Omega ) & \text{ if } x \in \Omega ^{c} \end{array}\right ., \end{equation}

(3) \begin{equation} d(x, \partial \Omega ):=\inf _{y \in \partial \Omega } d(x, y). \end{equation}

where $\partial \Omega$ denotes the boundary of $\Omega$ for any $x \in X$ and $\inf$ denotes the infimum.

Figure 5.

Signed distance used to verify collisions between the point cloud and the Robotiq 2F-140 collision mesh.

Figure 5 exemplifies this statement. Figure 6 shows the workspace used for testing (Fig. 6a), a collision-free grasp (Fig. 6b), and a identified collision between the gripper collision mesh and the workspace point cloud (Fig. 6c).

Figure 6.

Collision check system in an additive manufacturing system. (a) Workspace configuration used for testing. (b) There are no points inside the gripper collision mesh. (c) There are points of the 3D printer or the object point cloud inside the collision mesh of the gripper.

The point cloud of the workspace, considering the gripper pose in front of the printer, has on average $10,000$ points. It is required $0.8\,\text{s}$ to calculate the signed distance for this number of points. It is important to note that the signed distance is calculated again for each grasp generated. As GraspNet generates a diverse set of grasps for each object and most of them are in a collision, it can take considerable time to execute if the point cloud is not downsampled. Figure 7 shows the relationship between the number of points of the point cloud and the time to calculate the collision by using the signed distance.

Figure 7.

Relationship between the number of points of the workspace point cloud and the time required to verify the collision. It is required $0.8\,\text{s}$ to calculate the signed distance for 10,000 points.

6. Experimental results

This section describes the experiments conducted in an additive manufacturing unit assembled in a laboratory, composed of a 3D printer, an UR5 Robot Arm Manipulator, and a RGB+D camera Intel Realsense D435 mounted on the gripper Robotiq 2F-140. The system was developed using Robot Operating System. The grasping generator and object segmentation algorithms were implemented with the GPU versions of TensorFlow and MxNet, harnessing the power of parallel processing to improve efficiency. The GPU utilized for these computations was the NVIDIA GeForce RTX 3060 graphics card. As a parameter for evaluation, a grasp was considered successful if the object is taken from the 3D printer without slipping through the gripper.

Figure 8.

Successful and failed generated grasps generated in each step of the ablation study.

6.1. Ablation study

Some experiments were conducted to better understand the benefits of the integration of the proposed heuristics and the point cloud collision detection into the 6D grasping generator. The objects of Fig. 3 were used in these experiments, and only one object was randomly placed on the 3D printer bed per grasp. In the ablation study, the 6D grasp generator and the instance segmentation technique are employed in each one of the following cases:

1. 1. Using only stages 1 to 6 of the grasping pipeline of Fig. 2. The highest score grasp is chosen in this case;

2. 2. Considering stages 1 to 10 of the grasping pipeline of Fig. 2. A heuristic to filter the generated grasps is applied. The highest score grasp is chosen between the filtered grasps;

3. 3. Employing the complete grasping pipeline of the Fig. 2.

Figure 8 shows instances of successful and failed grasps. Since GraspNet only takes the object point cloud as input without information about the surrounding environment, it generates grasps that often collide with the printer. When an orientation constraint is added to GraspNet (stage 10 of the grasping pipeline), the grasp feasibility is improved but it does not guarantee that the robot will not collide with the environment, as clearly seen in Fig. 8. Nevertheless, grasps that are closer to the current end-effector orientation are considered, and grasps far away are ignored. For that, a heuristic already explained in Section 3 is applied. When a collision detection algorithm using the point cloud of the environment is applied, the successful grasps are considerably improved as seen in Fig. 9.

Figure 9.

Grasps performed employing the ablation study referred to in Section 6.1. (1) Grasping pipeline from stages 1 to 6, (2) grasping pipeline from stages 1 to 10, and (3) complete grasping pipeline. The objects applied in the experiments are shown in Fig. 3.

To analyze the performance of the proposed method, 20 pick attempts were performed per object. Figure 9 shows each grasp trial considering the referred ablation study. From the experiments, it can be inferred that the grasp generator does not effectively generate a grasp for small-sized objects such as part 1, nozzle, and gear box. Larger objects such as a vase, part 3, and bar clamp lead to more stable grasps.

In each ablation study, $120$ grasp attempts were performed in total. Table I shows the performance obtained for each case of the ablation study. Only eight (or $7\,\%$ ) grasps were successful when employing the grasping pipeline from stage $1$ to $6$ . When applying the grasping pipeline from stage $1$ to $10$ , $18$ (or $15\,\%$ ) grasps were successful. Considering the entire grasping pipeline, $74$ (or $62\,\%$ ) grasps were successful.

Table I.

Successful and failed grasping comparison of the ablation study in Fig. 8.

Figure 10.

Time to generate a grasp for each object used in the experiments. (1) Bar clamp, (2) gear Box, (3) nozzle, (4) part 1, (5) part 3, and (6) vase. The processing times were based on the ablation study referred in Section 6.1. It is noticed that the entire grasping pipeline is time-consuming due to the collision detection with the point cloud. However, grasp success is considerably increased as shown in Fig. 9.

It can be noted through Fig. 10 that the grasp generator and the pixel-wise segmentation methods are fast enough to generate a grasp from $2.6$ to $3.4$ seconds using the hardware mentioned in Section 6. Despite this lower grasping planning time, the grasping success rate is low. When the grasp collision check using the point cloud is employed, the grasp planning time is increased as well as the success rate as described in Fig. 9.

Despite the success rate of the entire grasping pipeline ( $62\,\%$ ), the time consumed to generate a grasp is considerably high, as shown in Fig. 10. Besides that, the time required to generate a grasp highly depends on the object’s geometry. Small objects such as part 1 demand a significant time to find a feasible grasp, and for bigger objects such as the vase, a grasp is generated faster. The reason is that the grasp generator employed was not trained with small objects as seen in ref. [Reference Mousavian, Eppner and Fox3]. Despite this, Fig. 11 shows that if we set a time threshold to generate a grasp, we would still get a high success rate for some objects. The lower the time threshold is, the lower the success rate because the grasp planner has less time to explore the 6D space.

Figure 11.

Relationship between time threshold and success rate.

To investigate the grasp repeatability, two poses (position + orientation) were determined empirically for each object, see Fig. 12a, and 15 grasp attempts were performed for each pose for each object, see Fig. 12b. It is important to point out that this repeatability test does not have a statistical value, but an empirical analysis. We can infer that the pose of the object’s point cloud $\boldsymbol{N}_{\boldsymbol{f}}$ in relation to the visual sensor generates different levels of graspability, and consequently the grasping generator produces a set of different grasps, except in cases of objects with a high degree of symmetry (e.g., balls, cubes, rectangles, cylinders, etc).

Figure 12.

Repeatability test.