Leta E. Miller’s Union Divided: Black Musicians’ Fight for Labor Equality offers a comprehensive examination of the intricate history of the struggle of Black musicians for labour equality both within and beyond the American Federation of Musicians (AFM). The book provides a detailed narrative of the experiences of Black musicians in the early twentieth century, who, confronted with racial discrimination and economic adversity, established independent Black locals – often referred to as “colored locals” – to safeguard their labour rights. These efforts involved a complex interplay of competition and collaboration with predominantly white locals (p. 28). Drawing on extensive archival material, personal interviews, and a nuanced analysis of racial tensions within the AFM, Miller elucidates the multifaceted challenges and developments that shaped this history. She shows how Black locals responded to exclusionary practices by white locals, economic constraints, and cultural prejudice, thereby highlighting the persistent endeavours of Black musicians to attain equitable treatment and opportunities (p. 46).
Miller, professor emerita at the University of California, Santa Cruz, specializes in American music and labour history. Her scholarship foregrounds racial dynamics and labour rights within the American music industry, offering a vital academic perspective on the experiences of Black labourers in music history. This volume not only enriches scholarly discourse in music and labour history but also provides substantive material and critical reflection for understanding the broader struggle for racial equality within the twentieth-century American labour union movement.
Union Divided is organized into ten chapters that systematically trace the efforts of Black musicians to secure labour equality inside and outside the AFM. The book traces the historical background of Black musicians’ union organization, explores their complex interactions with white locals, and examines the AFM’s approach to racial segregation.
The opening chapter, “Prelude”, briefly introduces the pressures exerted by Black musicians and unions on the AFM, with particular attention to the 1971 dissolution of Philadelphia’s Black Local 274 – the last remaining Black local. This event exposed enduring conflicts between Black and white locals and underscored the pervasive impact of segregationist policies (p. 1). Chapter Two, “The Origins of the American Federation of Musicians and Its Place in the History of Organized Labor”, investigates the AFM’s founding and its affiliation with the American Federation of Labor (AFL), detailing the AFM’s rapid expansion and the national unification of music unions through cooperation with the AFL, even as racial segregation played a significant role in this process (p. 9).
Chapter Three, “The Formation of Black AFM Locals, 1897–1927”, recounts the establishment of independent Black locals within the AFM framework. Their motivations extended beyond resistance to discrimination by white locals and included aspirations for greater economic, cultural, and musical rights (p. 28). Through case studies of Black locals in various cities, the book illustrates how these unions partly safeguarded Black musicians’ interests. Chapter Four, “Early Black Locals: Three Case Studies”, provides an in-depth analysis of Black locals in Chicago, San Francisco, and Seattle, revealing divergent trajectories and challenges (p. 46). These cases illuminate the legal, cultural, and economic barriers confronting Black musicians in their pursuit of equitable treatment.
Subsequent chapters, notably Chapter Five, “From the Glories of the ‘20s to the Despair of the ‘30s”, and Chapter Six, “The 1940s: Change Is in the Wind”, address the impact of the Great Depression and the transformations that followed World War II. They detail the difficulties faced by Black locals and the AFM’s responses during this period (p. 84). Miller observes that, although Black locals achieved certain successes, persistent economic pressure and racial discrimination constrained their further advancement.
The latter part of the book, from Chapter Seven, “Leading the Pack: The 1953 Los Angeles Merger”, to Chapter Ten, “Coda”, concentrates on the final merger processes between the AFM and Black locals, emphasizing the 1953 Los Angeles merger as a critical juncture in the AFM’s racial integration (p. 97). Chapter Eight, “Mergers from 1954 through 1966: State Labor Laws and the Battle of Chicago”, explores the AFM’s handling of racial mergers during the early 1960s and the negotiation of integration agreements by locals (p. 112). The concluding chapter, “Coda”, summarizes the post-merger status of the AFM and reflects on the progress achieved alongside the persistent challenges confronting Black musicians. While their standing within the union improved, racial inequality remained unresolved; the AFM continues to strive for broader racial representation and inclusion (p. 146).
Miller’s Union Divided offers valuable insights into the historical struggles of Black musicians within the AFM, revealing the complexities of union dynamics in relation to racial equality, cultural identity, and labour rights. Its scholarly contribution lies not only in its account of the fight for equal treatment but also in its analysis of the establishment of independent unions under conditions of segregation and economic oppression, as well as the negotiation of challenging terms with the AFM and white locals. Through her historical interpretation of Black locals, Miller reconstructs the union’s history and shows how Black musicians asserted and defended their rights within a labour movement traditionally dominated by white locals.
Using extensive archival research and case studies, Miller demonstrates that the formation of independent Black locals in the early twentieth century was not merely a consequence of segregation but also a strategic response to racial discrimination and concerns about cultural identity within the union system. These locals gave Black musicians greater autonomy and representation, helping to mitigate their marginalization within white locals (p. 28). Miller emphasizes that Black locals did not seek opposition to white locals as an end in itself, but aimed for equitable treatment and employment opportunities within the segregated milieu of the music industry. Although the AFM did not explicitly enforce segregation, local racial biases and exclusionary practices compelled Black musicians to organize independent locals to protect their interests (p. 2).
Miller further notes that, with the advent of the civil rights movement, the union struggles of Black musicians expanded from primarily economic demands to encompass broader concerns with social justice and racial equality. During the 1950s and 1960s in particular, the AFM faced mounting pressure to dismantle segregationist policies (p. 112). The merger processes of this period were not mere administrative consolidations; they also signalled Black musicians’ increasing influence on the AFM’s trajectory, especially their insistence on preserving cultural identity alongside labour rights.
The analysis of Black locals foregrounds the significance of cultural identity in the pursuit of union equality. Black musicians organized unions not only to improve wages and working conditions but also to protect and promote Black musical culture, which differed from the mainstream culture of white locals (p. 2). In some cities, for example, Black musicians emphasized improvisation and jazz traditions – musical forms often marginalized within white-dominated locals. Miller explores how these cultural distinctions intensified tensions between Black musicians and the AFM, complicating efforts at racial integration (p. 112). She contends that these differences transcended musical style, reflecting divergent conceptions of musicians’ roles within the union and shaping labour rights within a framework of cultural identity.
Moreover, the book’s discussion of the AFM merger history reveals the strategic complexity of Black musicians’ struggles for rights. Confronted with resistance from white locals, Black musicians displayed considerable strategic acumen. While some Black locals were willing to merge, many were concerned about losing representation and cultural autonomy within white locals (p. 97). Miller carefully examines these tensions, showing how Black musicians defended their labour rights while safeguarding their cultural identity and confidence.
Union Divided addresses a gap in academic research on the history of Black locals. Although substantial scholarship exists on American union history and Black labour movements, much of it centres on white locals or on broader labour movements, with insufficient focus on the distinctive role of Black musicians. Miller’s work offers a fresh perspective by exploring the interactions between Black and white locals, the confrontation with segregation, and the pursuit of rights through union organization.
In comparison with other scholarly works, such as Robert H. Zieger’s The CIO, 1935–1955 Footnote 1 or Kim Moody’s An Injury to All: The Decline of American Unionism,Footnote 2 Miller’s study adopts a narrower focus on the union history of Black musicians, integrating racial issues with labour rights in a detailed and nuanced analysis. This makes Union Divided a significant contribution not only to Black music history but also to labour history more broadly. Through a meticulous account of the AFM’s history, Miller demonstrates how unions negotiated racial issues and how these compromises shaped internal union solidarity and wider social movements.
Ultimately, Union Divided: Black Musicians’ Fight for Labor Equality presents a rich historical narrative of Black musicians’ union struggles and offers valuable perspectives and inspiration for future scholarly enquiry. Its in-depth analysis prompts a reassessment of American union history and racial dynamics, providing a framework for understanding the racial dimension of labour history. By documenting how Black locals fought for representation under conditions of segregation and economic pressure, Miller’s research encourages scholars to pay closer attention to other marginalized groups, including women and additional racial and ethnic minorities, within labour movements (p. 2). The book’s exploration of tensions between Black musicians’ cultural identity and union affiliation also opens new avenues for research on the intersection of culture and labour. Future studies might build on Miller’s analytical approach to investigate how diverse ethnic groups globally pursue equality and rights through unions and social movements in an increasingly interconnected world. This volume is therefore an important resource for understanding racial and cultural issues in the twentieth-century American labour movement and broadens the scope of scholarship in this field.
