Development of EFL teaching in China

Teaching English as a foreign language in China has a history of a little more than one hundred years (Fu, Reference Fu1986). There are five stages or periods in its development, namely, (1) prior to liberation (before 1949), (2) shortly after liberation (1949–1956), (3) the first renaissance (1956–1966), (4) the Cultural Revolution period (1966–1977), and (5) the second renaissance (1977–). In the following discussion, I demonstrate that each period has had an important influence on EFL teaching in China.

Prior to liberation (before 1949)

The history of EFL teaching in China can be traced to 1862, when the door to China was opened to the West (Fu, Reference Fu1986). During this period of time, foreign missionaries established schools to help train the masses and foreign language study was included in their training programs. English tended to dominate this field of study because most missionaries were from English-speaking countries. In addition, English was often used as a vehicle for general education because many of the foreign missionaries did not adequately know Chinese. There was also a prevailing sense among Westerners that the systems associated with China were ‘barbaric’ and therefore needed to be replaced with things more ‘civilized’ (i.e., systems from the West). The Grammar-Translation Method was prevalent in Western language teaching methodology at that time, and was adopted for teaching English in the missionary schools. The Grammar-Translation Method coincided with traditional language teaching methods in China, because Grammar-Translation encouraged memorization, recitation and strict adherence to grammar rules and was easily accepted by students and Chinese teachers, once they were trained to teach English (Harvey, Reference Harvey1985).

English was not formally taught as a course in school until 1902, when the Ching government prescribed English as one of the twelve courses offered in middle schools (Li et al., Reference Li, Zhang and Li1988). As a matter of fact, it was the famous Westernization Movement of the Ching dynasty that facilitated the EFL teaching. At that time, the increasing contact with Western countries and the growth of trade made it necessary for English to be included in the school curriculum. Also, the early 1900s saw an attempt to introduce the Direct Method because there was a demand for oral proficiency in trade and business endeavors that the Grammar-Translation Method could not accommodate (Fu, Reference Fu1986). The Direct Method was introduced by native-English-speaking teachers, but the Chinese teachers, who were by now responsible for teaching, felt insufficiently prepared to use it. Chinese teachers' limited oral skills, in addition to their inadequate methodological training, caused them to lose face with their students and resulted in the Chinese teachers reverting to the Grammar-Translation Method (Woolsey, Reference Woolsey1992).

Shortly after liberation (1949–1956)

The year 1949, when the People's Republic of China was established, was considered a new beginning in education for Chinese people (Fu, Reference Fu1986). However, due to the intimate Sino-Soviet relationship at that time, EFL teaching during this period of time was greatly reduced all over the country. Foreign language courses in many middle schools were switched from English to Russian. Foreign language education in China was also affected by the then current methodology in the former Soviet Union: Intensive Reading. This method was introduced and accepted widely by foreign language teachers in China, not only because it complemented the Grammar-Translation Method currently in place, but also because it fitted so well into traditional education. According to Fu (Reference Fu1986), EFL teaching in this period can be characterized as follows:

1. 1. The goal of English acquisition is to learn the language in order to read its literature or in order to benefit from the mental discipline and intellectual development that result from English study.

2. 2. English teaching in the classroom makes use of a very small number of textbooks, which are compiled on the basis of the principles of the Grammar-Translation Method.

3. 3. The sentence is the basic unit of teaching and language practice. Much of the lesson is devoted to translating sentences into and out of the target language.

4. 4. Grammar is taught deductively. In other words, students are given the grammar rules and examples, are told to memorize them, and then are asked to apply the rules to other examples.

5. 5. Accuracy is emphasized. It is important that the students get the correct answers in class. If the students make errors or do not know an answer, the teacher supplies them with the correct answer.

The first renaissance (1957–1966)

In the late 1950s, teaching Russian as a foreign language lost its popularity and there was a swing to English (Li et al., Reference Li, Zhang and Li1988). In many middle schools, class hours for EFL teaching increased. In some big cities, like Shanghai and Beijing, English began to be offered as a course in middle schools. The 1958 education reform caused a change in EFL teaching methods and materials, and there was a great desire to improve foreign language teaching methods. At the beginning of the 1960s, the Audio-Lingual Method was introduced as a way to improve oral skills. Although it had some success due to repetition drills, again, because of the lack of training and fear of losing face, it did not widely replace the Grammar-Translation or Intensive Reading Methods. Today, more than fifty years after its introduction, the Audio-Lingual Method is still sometimes used in Chinese schools.

The Cultural Revolution period (1966–1977)

The so-called ‘Cultural Revolution’ brought a great disaster to Chinese education, and there was no exception for EFL teaching. From 1966 to 1968, EFL courses were removed from the school curriculum (Fu, Reference Fu1986). Intellectuals, especially those who had mastered the English language, or received education from Western countries, were persecuted. Most of the EFL textbooks were criticized and EFL teachers were falsely accused of being spies and worshippers of Western countries. EFL teaching was so affected by this that even when other courses began to be offered again during that period, English was still banned in the classroom (Li et al., Reference Li, Zhang and Li1988).

It was not until around 1970 that EFL teaching was permitted in schools. But the English taught at that time was not the ‘authentic’ English used in everyday life in English-speaking countries. Textbooks were produced in the way the authorities decided. They were full of ‘slogans’ and ‘quotations’, with nothing about the societies and cultures of English-speaking countries. All the English teachers were permitted to do was to teach the new words, read the text sentence by sentence, and then translate it into Chinese (Woolsey, Reference Woolsey1992).

The second renaissance (1977–)

Since 1977, EFL teaching in China has entered a period of prosperity. First of all, people from all walks of life have become more and more aware of the importance of English as China opens her door to Western countries. Foreign language education, specifically English, is now strategically linked to the quest for modernization. English has become one of the major courses in middle schools and universities (Fu, Reference Fu1986).

While English teachers in China today are still engaged in developing their students' linguistic competence, they are also turning their attention to developing students' communicative competence. The Grammar-Translation methodology, alone or in conjunction with the Audio-Lingual methodology, is no longer considered a viable method for this purpose, so CLT was introduced into English classrooms at the beginning of the 1980s. In 1984, Li Xiaoju and her associates compiled Communicative English for Chinese Learners, a series of communicative English textbooks that profoundly affected Chinese teachers' and learners' attitudes towards communicative language teaching. However, it was not until the early 1990s that substantial progress was made in applying CLT to teaching practice in China. In 1992, the State Education Development Commission (hereafter, SEDC), the representative of the central government whose function is to make educational policies and determine the goals, curriculum, course books and even teaching method, replaced the 1981 structure-based national unified syllabus in middle schools with a new one that set communication as the teaching aim. The 1992 syllabus called for training in listening, speaking, reading, and writing to enable students to ‘gain basic knowledge of English and competence to use English for communication’ (SEDC, 1992: 1). There are three obvious characteristics in this syllabus. First, it advocates that ‘almost everything that is done is done with a communicative intent’ (Larsen-Freeman, Reference Larsen-Freeman1986: 132). Another characteristic is that ‘activities in the CLT are often carried out by students in small groups’ (Larsen-Freeman, Reference Larsen-Freeman1986: 132). The final characteristic is ‘its learner-centered and experience-based view of second language learning’ (Richard & Rodgers, Reference Richard and Rodgers1986: 69).

Nevertheless, the outcome of teaching English exclusively using CLT has not, so far, provided the expected results. On the one hand, students do not like to participate in communicative-type activities and prefer more traditional classroom work; on the other hand, teachers feel discouraged from continuing with CLT, both because of students' negative responses and because of their lack of training in using it (Rao, Reference Rao2002). Such a phenomenon may have resulted from several difficulties and challenges associated with EFL teaching in Chinese schools today.

Difficulties and challenges for EFL teaching in China today

While it is true that the introduction of CLT has brought about an unprecedented development in EFL teaching in Chinese schools, it has also faced some difficulties and challenges. Most of these problems are related to the higher demand placed on teachers, traditional education perceptions, the national system of examinations, and a lack of financial resources.

The first obstacle is the extent of the demand placed on teachers who are non-native English speakers. Although foreign experts in English teaching are increasingly available, many of these newly available teachers are engaged in training Chinese foreign language teachers at the tertiary level. The bulk of English teaching is still conducted by Chinese teachers, the majority of whom have never been outside of China or talked to a foreigner. Owing to a lack of English proficiency themselves, some Chinese teachers are concerned about not being able to answer spontaneous questions about the target language, sociolinguistics, or culture as they arise from interactions in the classroom (Rao, Reference Rao2002). It is not rare to hear English teachers complain: ‘I can only teach English to some extent. If I am asked to give more explanations on language and cultural differences, it is impossible for me.’

The second obstacle to EFL teaching in a communicative way in the Chinese school classroom is that CLT runs counter to traditional practice. The traditional relationship between Chinese teachers and students makes it difficult for them to suspend their beliefs about the teacher's role and to take part in simulated interaction (Ting, Reference Ting1987). The students, for example, may be perplexed by CLT because they are not accustomed to it. They would prefer to attend lectures on intensive reading and grammar and to take conventional examinations.

What makes CLT even more difficult is the fact that teachers at all levels in China are expected to cover the curriculum developed by the government (Li, Reference Li1984). Based on this centralized curriculum, almost all English textbooks are designed to teach grammar, reading, and writing, with little emphasis on listening and speaking, let alone activities such as games or role playing. Although the examinations are locally set, there are strong expectations on the part of the students and the school administration that the content and form will be similar to that of the traditional national examinations. The discrete-point, structurally-based national examination does not test communicative skills. In addition, some EFL teachers comment that they risk criticism from their colleagues or superiors if they use materials other than those approved by the government (Rao, Reference Rao2002).

A lack of resources and equipment is the fourth obstacle to using CLT. In many schools, classes of 70–80 students are common. The number of students enrolled in schools has drastically increased since 2000. This has led to a total of 60 students in most English classes in almost all schools. Besides, most schools do not have enough financial resources to provide the audio-visual equipment, photocopiers, or resources (such as a wide range of authentic print materials) that are required to support the dynamic teaching necessitated by CLT.

Prospects for EFL teaching in China in the future

Thus far, this paper has reviewed the development of EFL teaching in China, and examined the obstacles that prevent EFL teachers in China from adopting CLT in their classroom teaching. The above discussion discloses that making exclusive use of either CLT or one of the traditional methods in Chinese schools is not entirely practical. In fact, numerous studies have confirmed that no single teaching method, so far, can be expected to deal with everything that concerns the form, use, and content of the target language (e.g., Roberts, Reference Roberts and Kinsella1982; Harvey, Reference Harvey1985; Rao, Reference Rao2002). Perhaps one of the best ways to teach English in the future is to reconcile CLT with Chinese traditional teaching methods. Roberts (Reference Roberts and Kinsella1982) comments that CLT is in many ways a commitment to eclecticism in practice, and cannot be otherwise. Harvey (Reference Harvey1985) concludes that what might be called traditional methods and skills are not necessarily unworkable alongside CLT. To make some adjustments and to use a combination of methods, EFL teachers in Chinese schools must pay attention to:

1. 1. accuracy and fluency

2. 2. linguistic competence and communicative competence

3. 3. student-centered classroom activities

4. 4. cultural awareness

Accuracy and fluency

There is no denying the fact that both accuracy and fluency are essential in language teaching. In the traditional EFL teaching dominated by such methods as the Grammar-Translation Method or the Audio-Lingual Method, accuracy is emphasized more than fluency. In order to achieve accuracy, the students need rigorous training in the language system. Teachers, then, try whatever they can to help their students lay a solid foundation, which is primarily, though by no means solely, achieved through a focus on accuracy. However, accuracy does not mean 100% error-free, which is an impossible achievement. Soon after the students have mastered meaningful language forms, teachers ought to provide them with opportunities to do some fluency practice by adopting CLT. Then control should be withdrawn and students would be expected to use the language more freely. At this stage, errors should be tolerated, and the teacher should make it clear to the students that error-making is not disgraceful but only natural. Even so, a summative assessment of the students' performance should be made at the end of each fluency practice, so that the students are aware of their weaknesses and become more error-conscious. In this way, accuracy practice and fluency practice are done almost simultaneously.

Linguistic competence and communicative competence

Both linguistic competence and communicative competence are of essential importance for English learners. Traditionally, EFL teaching in China places much emphasis on language structures and linguistic details. For most EFL teachers in China, vocabulary work and pattern drills are means of familiarizing the students with sentence structures. They believe that it is essential to do some translation from or to the target language. However, such linguistic competence does not automatically result in students' communicative competence. Communicative competence involves principles of appropriateness and a readiness on the part of the learner to use relevant strategies in coping with certain language situations. Linguistic competence is, then, the basis of communicative competence. Without linguistic competence, there is no communicative competence. But forms of classroom activities such as role playing, simulations, and real-life interactions should be used to provide as much practice as possible for students to develop communicative competence while practicing linguistic competence.

Student-centered classroom activities

To facilitate language acquisition and to improve communicative competence, the students are required to have a large amount of practice. So the teachers must see to it that classroom interaction is managed, not just by the teacher, but by all present. In order to avoid being the focal point of the interaction, the teacher should arrange the desks in the classroom in such a way that the students can look directly at one another, therefore maximizing interaction among the students. However, this does not mean that once a teaching activity is in progress, the teacher should become a passive observer. Although the teacher may be non-directive in general, it is the teacher's responsibility to recognize the distinctive qualities, particular those that are assets, of his or her pupils, and help them to develop those assets fully. To do this, the teacher should discard masks of superiority and communicate openly with his or her students. Instead of being the dominant authority in the classroom, the teacher is an independent participant, a communication activator, an organizer of resources, and a guide within classroom procedures and activities.

Cultural awareness

One of the important components of communicative competence is the ability to select a linguistic form that is appropriate for a specific situation, or to use English. There is plenty of evidence that a good command of English grammar, vocabulary, and syntax does not necessarily add up to mastery of English. There is said to be a set of social conventions governing language form and behavior within a communicative group. However, by emphasizing cultural awareness in EFL teaching we do not mean that our paradigms of teaching should be based on the monolingual canon. English has become a global medium and a shared code of communication for those who use it across cultures. This globalization of English leads to the importance of world Englishes, leading to multi-canons. Speakers of Englishes need to develop awareness of sociolinguistic realities and develop tolerance of what may possibly be deemed poor pronunciation or some violation of rules of speaking if that does happen. They should have a better understanding of various interactional contexts and adapt themselves to them.