What is Podcasting?

Podcasting stormed the world in 2005 so dramatically that the New Oxford American Dictionary declared it “word of the year” (Balas Reference Balas2005; Eash Reference Eash2006; Ractham and Zhang Reference Ractham and Zhang2006; Skiba Reference Skiba2006). The term was coined in 2004, a combination of the “pod” from Apple's popular iPod music player with “broadcasting.” The idea itself stretches back to the year 2000, and represents not so much a new and innovative technology as it does a new and innovative combination of existing technologies (see Hargis and Wilson Reference Hargis and Wilson2007, 3; Schlosser and Burmeister Reference Schlosser and Burmeister2006).

One component is RSS, or Really Simple Syndication, a technology that allows the creators of Web content to provide a separate “digested” version that can be read in news reader programs. One common use of RSS is on the customizable home pages offered by Yahoo and other sites, which assemble in one place news headlines from a variety of sources. Extensions to the RSS system have allowed updates to include multimedia content, such as images, audio, or video files. Enter the podcast.

In its current form, a podcast consumer uses a special podcasting client program (such as Apple's iTunes music playerFootnote ¹) to locate available podcasts and subscribe to them. At that point, the magic of podcasting takes over. Periodically, the client program—what some users call a “pod-catcher”—checks to see if any of the user's podcasts have been updated. New episodes are usually downloaded immediately, and the user is notified. Audio podcasts, the most common kind, can either be listened to on the computer or transferred to an iPod or other personal music player. Users can watch video content on a computer or on a suitably equipped MP3 player.

Adventures in Podcasting

As a result of recording and podcasting a few lectures at the end of the fall semester in 2005, I chose to conduct an informal experiment by podcasting each and every lecture from two of my spring 2006 courses, one an introductory American politics course (POLS 101), the other a section of our department's methods in political analysis course (POLS 251). For every semester since then I have also provided a course podcast. While focusing only on lectures barely scratches the surface of how podcasts could enrich college instruction, my choice was motivated by the belief that podcasting lectures alone was a beneficial start. First, many students regularly struggle with a course for reasons unrelated to the content itself; some might be poor note takers, while others have difficulty seeing the big picture in the different topics they learn. Even the best students find themselves at some point confronted by a baffling topic. Providing easy electronic access to lectures offers all students additional opportunities during the regular flow of the course to refine their understanding, reinforce material they struggled with, or correct deficiencies in the notes they took during class.

A related benefit for the student comes when preparing for an exam. Most students likely follow one or more common strategies in their review process: rereading their textbooks, reading through their notes, and drilling themselves on particular content items. The presence of a lecture podcast could serve as a valuable supplement, especially for those students who find themselves unclear on a particular topic that was covered during our time in class (see James Reference James2006, 4; McLaughlin Reference McLaughlin2006, 10; and Windham Reference Windham2007, 54).

Finally, a lecture podcast benefits the instructor as well. On the one hand, it provides a relief from students' numerous requests for “mini-lectures” to review material they should have already learned. Perhaps more significantly, though, instructors can rest assured that the student who does happen to miss a class session for whatever reason is not disadvantaged by the absence (James Reference James2006, 4; Miller Reference Miller2006). Podcasted lectures also allow faculty a chance to reflect on their own teaching practices and effectiveness in communication (see Card et al. Reference Card, Polin, Parra, Rhoads and Sartori2006, 138, for other possible benefits to faculty).

The obvious drawback of making lectures available online on a regular basis (as opposed to storing them up to release all at one point) is the potential negative impact on student attendance. A lecture available online could significantly impact a student's decision to attend the actual lecture. My opinion on such matters is that students will take seriously those elements of a course that you imply are important by way of grading (see Baranowski Reference Baranowski2006, 42). Consequently, to emphasize the importance of class attendance, I doubled its value in my 101 course and added an attendance grade for 251. Table 1 records the average attendance for the classes I have offered with a lecture podcast. Because I did not previously record attendance in my 251 classes, I do not have a baseline for comparison. However, the relative similarity of attendance averages before and after suggests that the availability of a podcast did not prevent a noticeable number of students from coming to class.Footnote ² Table 2 reports answers to the question “Have you ever chosen to skip a class (for whatever reason) knowing that you could listen to the podcast later?” While responses to such a question should clearly be treated skeptically, they seem on the whole fairly acceptable. Whether steady attendance comes from the increased size of the attendance grade or, whether the podcasts themselves might spur increased interest in classroom time, my results seem to mirror other anecdotal research that podcasts do not necessarily remove students from the actual classroom (Windham Reference Windham2007, 54).

Table 1

Course Attendance Before and After Podcasts

Table 2

Response to “Have you ever chosen to skip a class (for whatever reason) knowing that you could listen to the podcast later?”

* Surveys from fall 2006 were partial mid-semester surveys with limited participation.

Nuts and Bolts

Many hesitate to adopt instructional technologies because they are uncertain about how much time is required. After several semesters of experience, my general observation—presuming that we focus on a scenario in which the instructor podcasts without support from college IT staff—is that preplanning and choices about the complexity of the podcast itself dictate how much time will be required. I will discuss these factors as they impact the five separate phases of the podcasting process: recording, digitizing, editing, encoding, and uploading. My goal is to talk generally about the process of podcasting, not to offer a hands-on tutorial for how to do it. While I personally use an Apple Macintosh computer, the same process would work on Windows PC, albeit with different software programs.

My first attempts at podcasting were somewhat spur of the moment. As such, the limiting factor proved to be the actual recording of the course content. Our college's AV department offers the use of cassette recorders with lapel microphones. As the fastest and potentially most reliable way to easily record my lectures, cassette recording was the obvious first choice. The major drawback, however, is that before they can be used for podcasting, analog audio recordings must first be digitized—essentially recorded again onto a computer. While college staff could have helped with the process, I chose to go it alone figuring that what I would lose in terms of my own time would be gained by not having to depend on another individual's workload. In general, digitizing audio content requires as much time as the recording itself. After every 75-minute lecture, therefore, I had to wait an additional 75 minutes. This solution might have been convenient, but it was not optimal. In addition to doubling time on the front end, most audio recording programs record audio into very large files that take up a significantly larger amount of storage space than they do when compressed into the common MP3 standard. This format can reduce 75 minutes worth of audio from the better part of a gigabyte down to 20 megabytes or even less, depending upon compression settings and choices about audio quality (see also Branzburg Reference Branzburg2006). Reducing file size can be very important at institutions where network storage space is at a premium. While some might choose to delete old episodes after a certain period time, doing so decreases a student's ability to review them later in the semester. However, storing a semester's worth of audio recordings can take a fairly large amount of space.

After these first attempts, I chose to combine the recording and the digitizing into one step so that as I delivered the lecture it was automatically saved onto my computer in a more useable format. The answer was a small microphone headset identical to the ones used by millions of individuals to make cellphone calls hands free. The $40 version I purchased has proved reliable and effective, though the audio quality is not as good as one would find on a headsets costing over $100. When paired with a shareware audio program, I was able to record my lectures as they happened.

By editing a podcast, I refer to time spent doing a variety of different tasks: removing extraneous silences or irrelevant content in the recording, as well as adding music, sound effects, or other audio content. In this area, skill and planning can have a large impact on the time required. Polish and professionalism may certainly be a virtue in podcasting, but too much time devoted to selecting intro music or including radio-style sound effects can dramatically lengthen the time required for producing an episode. The faculty member who records a lecture directly into the standard MP3 format and who chooses not to edit or embellish the recording could bypass this stage entirely.

One aspect of editing that should be mentioned involves what are known as enhanced podcasts. Podcasts played back on Apple's iPod music players or iTunes music software can include additional features, the most prominent of which is the ability to subdivide the podcast into numerous named chapters, making it very easy for listeners to jump to specific points in the audio. Chapter markers can also be accompanied by clickable links or image files (e.g., slides from a PowerPoint presentation). While enhanced podcasts might truly be useful, they have two drawbacks. First, their unique file format may not be playable for every student. Second, enhancing a podcast represents an additional investment of time in the form of reviewing the podcast itself in order to properly place the images or links, though programs to automate this process are now becoming available.

Depending upon the programs used to create the podcast, one may be able to bypass the encoding stage entirely. If, however, a program stores its files in a format other than MP3 those files will need to be converted before they can become part of a podcast. Depending on the length of the recording and your computer's processing power, encoding could take the length of the recording itself or longer, especially if you attempt to use your computer for other tasks while encoding.

The final step of the process is uploading the podcast. Various software programs exist to ease this process, including the creation of the master podcast file that contains all the details about the podcast itself (necessary for users to find and download the content using their podcast clients). Most programs allow this information to be saved for later use so that uploading subsequent episodes is as easy as adding your new recording to an episode list, providing a title and description, and then pressing an upload button. For podcasts stored on campus-owned servers, uploaded from campus computers, most files should take no longer than a few minutes to upload. Content management systems like Blackboard are also beginning to offer podcasting components, though they still require you to separately create and upload the audio files to the server.

This process may sound complicated, and faculty members with limited technological skills may find it daunting enough not to proceed. After a few episodes, though, the procedure becomes routine. My typical day was as follows. Recording and digitizing occurred as I lectured. Once I returned to my office, I would open my audio editing program. To save time I used the previous episode as a template; doing so meant that my introductory music and my closing copyright notice were already in place. I would then insert the new lecture audio, trimming the ends as necessary to remove extraneous material. Recording a brief intro line with the date would bring my total editing time to perhaps 15 minutes total. I would then begin the encoding process as I continued the rest of my work. An hour or so later I would have the final version of my podcast episode, which I would then upload in a matter of minutes. On days if I was not interrupted or otherwise occupied during the hour after class, my podcast would be updated within hours of the end of class.

A Taxonomy of Instructional Podcasting

While podcasts are still the “bleeding edge” of the academic use of technology, their prevalence is growing. In some places, individual enterprising faculty members are pursuing podcasting. In others—Duke, Drexel, Purdue, Allegheny College, the University of Chicago—podcasting has received an institutional push, in part because podcasting allows schools an additional public outreach opportunity (Skiba Reference Skiba2006, 54; see also Harkness Reference Harkness2006, 16). For example, an enterprising institution could use podcasts as a tool for recruiting new students, for maintaining contact with alumni, or for making other resources and assets available to the community, such as a special lecture series. Along those lines, Apple's popular iTunes music store has added an iTunes U area that allows institutions a fairly easy way to bring their podcasts to a large audience.

Focusing on the narrower use of podcasting for instructional purposes, the first and most basic type of podcasting is that which I described above: the recording of class lectures for distribution online. This coursecasting, as many refer to it, is really podcasting “as an afterthought.” It represents a marginal investment of additional time and effort on the part of faculty, and for that reason it is an attractive first option for those beginning to podcast (see Windham Reference Windham2007, 62). Coursecasting, however, barely scratches the surface of what is possible. At least three other types of uses are suggested by the rapidly growing literature.

A more ambitious and purposeful approach to podcasting would be what I call the fireside chat method. Just as many news outlets are using the web to offer materials that supplement their traditional coverage, podcasts represent an additional opportunity for delivering course content or reaching course objectives.Footnote ⁵ Campbell offers several examples of this form of podcasting, many of which center on preparing students for upcoming class sessions by exploring in detail some piece of course content, for example a particular poem in a poetry class or an academic article in a biology class (Campbell Reference Campbell2005, 34, 42).

The major benefit of this approach is that faculty members can expand the amount of time they have to deliver course content to students (see Boulos, Maramba, and Wheeler Reference Boulos, Maramba and Wheeler2006, 3; Card et al. Reference Card, Polin, Parra, Rhoads and Sartori2006, 138; Lee and Chan Reference Lee and Chan2007, 92; Low and O'Connell Reference Low and O'Connell2006; Miller Reference Miller2006; Schmit Reference Schmit2007, 15; Seitzinger Reference Seitzinger2006, 9; Science Scope 2006). And when this time is used for modeling valuable professional skills, such as interpreting a poem or critiquing a journal article, faculty can add significantly to their students' learning experience—though faculty must carefully weigh how large a burden to place on students' time outside of class (Lee and Chan Reference Lee and Chan2007, 91). When asked about the optimal length of podcasts featuring additional course content, approximately 75% of students in my spring 2007 courses said that podcast episodes should last no longer than five to 15 minutes. Fireside chats also have the disadvantage that they require additional planning and time to prepare supplementary course content. Some evidence exists, though, that this loss of time might be offset by time that is freed up during class sessions (Ashman Reference Ashman2006, 9).

A third possible use would be “podcast as assessment.” Seen as a form of oral or multimedia presentation, students could be required to prepare brief podcasts as part of their grades. Campbell offers the hypothetical although creative example of a philosophy course in which groups making in-class presentations on various philosophers were required to pre-release a podcast teaser in order to whet students' appetites and prepare them for class discussion (Campbell Reference Campbell2005, 33; see also Flanagan and Calandra Reference Flanagan and Calandra2005, 21; Frydenberg Reference Frydenberg2006, 4; Harkness Reference Harkness2006, 23; Lee Reference Lee2006, 28; Lee and Chan Reference Lee and Chan2007, 99; Schmit Reference Schmit2007, 16; Warlick Reference Warlick2005; Windham Reference Windham2007, 56).

While such podcasts have exciting potential, they belie two important potential problems. The first is that the success of technologically driven assignments depends on the particular students and their skills. A class of computer science students may have no problem creating their own podcast episodes. A class of political science majors, however, might require remedial technical instruction, something that the instructor should not overlook. While our students may have increasing levels of technological literacy, what is most needed for podcasting assignments is productive literacy—not simple “consumptive” literacy.

The second potential problem is a more philosophical one. At the beginning of his hypothetical example, Campbell refers to the way in which student-created podcasts would likely lead to an “informal, good-natured podcasting competition” centered around creating the most polished and “exciting” production possible (Campbell Reference Campbell2005, 34; see also Frydenberg Reference Frydenberg2006, 5). While he seems unconcerned about such issues, Campbell's quip points out a very real downside to students' use of technology. Increasing scores of students are able to put together a PowerPoint presentation or film digital videos, but few of them may be able to make consistently positive choices about how to present content without overwhelming it with the chosen medium's design possibilities.

To use Campbell's examples, a student trying to create a “movie-trailer-style” podcast about Nietzsche, working “to combine the sound effects with the readings and commentary,” will most likely be spending much more time worried about the sound effects than about Nietzsche. To be fair, this criticism applies to faculty and members of the professional or business community just as equally (see Glasner Reference Glasner2002; Madigan Reference Madigan2006; Oakes Reference Oakes1998; Tufte Reference Tufte2003). In this regard, perhaps the real need is not for greater technological literacy among our learners, but for an increased emphasis on how to leverage design so as to best illuminate content—what could be called critical literacy. Though his focus was digital recording equipment and not podcasting per se, Donald French echoes this concern when he notes that his biology students could easily record dissections but struggled with how to study effectively from such aids (French Reference French2006, 59).

A final use of podcasting focuses not so much on the content as on the emotional effect that podcasts can have. Certainly useful in distance education but just as valuable for technology-enhanced face-to-face courses, podcasts can serve as community enhancers. By offering a forum to respond to student concerns, either about course content or requirements, podcasts can draw students further into the educational process (Chan and Lee Reference Chan and Lee2005, 65). Miller has effectively deployed podcasts in his psychology courses to “make a very large class feel “psychologically' smaller”; students who helped produce fireside chat podcasts gained an excitement from their involvement, and those who listened found themselves attracted to the more intimate, informal mode of learning (Miller Reference Miller2006). Discussing his pre-podcasting experience, Carmichael describes a student in a contract law class who told him that the use of specialized audio made her feel “loved” (Carmichael Reference Carmichael2005).

Observations

While this paper offers a broad description of podcasting's potential, its empirical results are more limited. Far from being a comprehensive test of the instructional impact of podcasting as a whole, my own experience only covers the results of a limited trial using podcasts in one particular way, in one particular student body, by one particular instructor. However, I believe that important conclusions can still be drawn, ones that partly support the current interest in podcasting while offering a few correctives to untested presumptions about student behavior.

Observation 1: Content matters

Very few students report voraciously consuming podcasted lectures. There is good reason to believe, though, that a large percentage of students will use the podcast occasionally. Various comments offered by students suggest that they perceive a podcast as one of the many resources available to them. In all likelihood students will use podcasts (and other course resources) strategically in order to meet their own perceived needs. These needs will usually coincide with those a faculty member might anticipate; student comments highlighted the utility of the podcast for correcting deficiencies in notes, reviewing for exams, and making up absences. Despite the novelty of the podcast, the fact that students approached it from a practical point of view suggests that the success of instructional technologies lies more with their actual ability to improve the educational experience than with their “wow factor.”Footnote ⁶ Still, faculty may want to be attentive to ways they can guide students in making the best use of available resources. Just as many students need to be taught how to take good notes and to use notes in studying, so too might they benefit from some guidance on when and how to use podcasts.

In thinking about how to transition my podcasts to include more fireside chats, I asked my spring 2007 students about their interest in seven content types frequently discussed in the literature. These results are displayed in Table 9. Some understandable differences do appear between the perspectives of students in my introductory American politics and my upper level methods course. However, students in both reported a particular interest in two specific types of podcasts: brief (five to 10 minute) reviews of important points and concepts from the week, and summaries or discussions of class readings.

Table 9

Student Reactions to Possible Podcast Content

* Means are calculated based on the following coding: “Not at all interested” = 0; “Somewhat Interest” = 1; “Interested” = 2; “Very Interested” = 3

Observation 2: Context matters

Examining student usage of the podcast aggregated by type of course (Table 10 and Table 11) suggests that the podcast proved somewhat more successful in the upper-level course. Many faculty and even institution-level decisions about deploying instructional technology tend to focus on higher-enrollment intro courses. While my experience does not contradict “bang for the buck” reasoning, it does suggest that upper-level courses with noticeably harder content should not be ignored (see also Jham, Duraes, Strassler, and Sensi Reference Jham, Duraes, Strassler and Sensi2008). Students in such classes might actually derive greater benefit from additional technological resources.

Table 10

Weekly Use of Podcast, Aggregated by Course

Table 11

Overall Use of Podcast, Aggregated by Course