In Dying to Be Men, L. Stephanie Cobb argues that early Christian martyr texts functioned to shape Christian group identity and enhance the self-esteem of individual members. In this sense, the martyr texts are more educational propaganda than objective history. In particular, the martyr texts display the masculinity of the earlier Christian martyrs (both men and women), thereby aligning Christian comportment with a central value of Roman society.
Following the introduction, chapter 1 presents the theoretical base for the work that includes insights from modern social identity theory alongside an overview of perspectives on sex and gender in the Roman world. Social psychologists Henri Tajfel and John Turner provide the foundation for the sociological aspect of the argument. The discussion of gender is based on insights from the now standard repertoire of secondary literature on gender in the ancient Greco-Roman world. This includes especially the work of Michel Foucault and Thomas Laqueur and edited volumes by David Halperin and John Winkler.
The focus on social identity theory enables Cobb to move away from historical readings of the martyr texts (what actually happened?) as well as individual psychological analyses of the martyrs (were they religious fanatics?). It provides a useful framework for understanding why the texts were written and why they take the shape they do. Social identity theory posits that human beings categorize the world in order to bring meaning to their lives and especially to affirm the self's role in society. Group identity is constructed in the service of self-esteem. The theory suggests that there are three aspects of group formation: categorization, identification, and comparison. According to Cobb, each of these three categories is at work in the martyr texts. The process of self-categorization is seen in the way the characters of the martyr texts conform to certain attributes of Christian identity. Cobb's gender analysis suggests that these attributes—courage, strength, reason, justice—are (not coincidently) what defined ideal masculinity in the Roman world. This display of manly traits would be reinforced by a comparison to the unmanly behavior of non-Christians. Emphasizing the Christians' superior masculinity would enhance Christian self-esteem and help solidify group identity.
The rest of the argument unfolds in three chapters. Chapter 2 examines the most explicit means of masculinization of the Christian martyrs: their depiction as gladiators and athletes. The chapter includes discussion of the amphitheater as liminal space; the border between barbarism and civility; and of the gladiator, a character both revered and reviled. While this chapter is informative, one wishes there was more discussion of the martyr texts themselves in light of the detailed discussion of Roman gladiatorial practices. The main point, which comes only toward the end of the chapter, is that identification with the gladiator meant linking the Christians to a figure who, though potentially a symbol of humiliation, was viewed as a masculine ideal in the Roman world. In speaking of martyrs as gladiators, the early Christians could make a similar shift. Especially the figures of the auctorati, paid volunteers who would demonstrate their courage by risking their lives in the amphitheater, would be useful for the portrayal of the martyrs. Like the deaths of the auctorati, the martyrs' deaths could be viewed as a volitional and thereby noble death rather than a lethal punishment executed by Rome. Less convincing is Cobb's link between the martyr texts and a particular interpretation of the Roman spectacles that view them as displays of Roman protection (or lack thereof) rather than Roman punishment. If the amphitheater is liminal space, situated on the edge of barbarism, the gladiatorial death may be seen as a dramatic display of what happens when one is removed from Roman protection—one dies. What interests Cobb in this interpretation is the shift in emphasis from being killed to dying, since the discourse of martyr texts make a similar move. Still, the meanings behind this shift in emphasis are so different that making the connection raises more problems than insights into the material.
Chapter 3 focuses on the discourse of the martyr texts, especially the more subtle ways that they link their heroes to masculine virtues. Cobb points to the complex of virtues that are on display in the texts—virtues such as self-control, volition, mastery of the passions, and knowledge of justice, all of which contribute to the identification of these Christians as true men. The texts also offer comparisons designed to secure this self-identification. The “other” are either less manly (pagans and Jews) or completely unmanly (the apostate Christian).
Most helpful is chapter 4, which examines the ambiguous depiction of the “masculinized” female martyr alongside the embodiment of traditional feminine attributes, especially maternal qualities. Cobb argues that this complex gender identity was necessary for dealing with the multiple positions of the female martyrs. They needed to be manly with respect to their external opponents because being Christian meant being more masculine than the other. But because internally the community maintained traditional gender roles, the female martyrs also served as models for proper female deportment. One minor point: Cobb cites divine marital imagery as part of this feminine aspect of the female martyrs—Perpetua is called “wife of Christ” and “God's beloved.” But such language is applied just as readily to men in early Christian texts and likely points to a different gender dynamic. In this case, both male and female are depicted as women with respect to the ultimate man, God.
Overall, Dying to be Men is a well-written and worthwhile contribution to the growing number of studies on the function of gender in early Christian texts. Together, this body of scholars makes a convincing case for the central role of gender identity—particularly the construction of ideal masculinity—in early Christian discourse. As Cobb illustrates, depiction of the early Christian martyrs as true men was a major strategy for solidifying group identity and enhancing the self-esteem of its members. The consistent portrayal of Christians as ideal men across a range of early Christian texts helped the movement gain credibility and status internally—and eventually externally—at a time when “being a man” was a widely accepted cultural value.
