Before turning to Greek athletics, both Miller and Nicholson wrote doctoral theses on epinician poetry – Miller on Victory and Identity in Epinician and Epigram (2014) and Nicholson on Myth in Pindar (1994) – following the precedent set by D. Young. These two recent books remain closely connected to Pindar and his time. Nicholson’s volume alone contains nearly 700 references to the poet, even though Pindar’s name does not appear in its title (nor in Miller’s). For a long time, as C.G. Brown observed (Mouseion 16.3 [2019], 415–31), scholarship on Pindar focused on the rhetorical structure and function of the odes rather than on their historical and social contexts. Recently, however, Greek athletics has become a more popular subject, and publishers have recognised its appeal.
Miller’s meticulously crafted study explores the varied ways in which Pindar, Bacchylides and selected epigrammatists commemorate Greek athletic victories. Central to the discussion is the concept of angelia – the herald’s formal proclamation of victory at the Panhellenic games. This announcement typically included the victor’s name, the father’s name, polis, event and age category, along with an explicit reference to the triumph.
As no herald’s proclamation has survived, Miller reconstructs the angelia from epinikia – primarily the intricate verse structures of Pindar, who offers remarkably little detail on the practicalities of Greek athletics – and from epigrams, which, owing to their extreme brevity, reveal even less about the proclamation. Following a comprehensive review of previous scholarship, Miller presents a persuasive analysis of the similarities and differences between these two genres and demonstrates how each adapted the angelia for poetic purposes. Organised into an introduction, three chapters and a conclusion, this volume constitutes the first systematic study of the angelia.
In Chapter 1, ‘Messages and Heralds’, Miller investigates the ways in which Pindar and Bacchylides employ the angelia through metaphors that equate song with message and poet with herald. He argues that the fourteen verses constituting the angelia in Bacchylides’ second ode amount to an almost literal ‘verse version’ of an actual proclamation. The chapter further explores Pindar’s integration of the angelia into the proem of Pythian 6, where, amid a network of complex metaphors, the Delphic treasuries are imagined as proclaiming victory for Xenokrates of Akragas in the tethrippon.
Miller then turns to epigrams – typically brief inscriptions carved on marble statue bases or bronze plaques in sanctuaries –, where instances of the angelia are comparatively rare. As an example he cites CEG 834, a fragmentary poem of fewer than two lines commemorating a Pythian and Nemean victor, which contains a reference to crowning and allusions to the father and polis. He also discusses CEG 381, 362 and 364, none of which exceeds three lines. A fourth-century inscription from Olympia (CEG 862), extending to six lines, offers a slightly more elaborate formulation than a simple proclamation by referring to a ‘beautiful equestrian victory’ and recording that the athlete was the first from his city to achieve the status of Olympic champion.
In Chapter 2, ‘Epinikian Elaborations’, Miller explores how epinician poetry creatively expands upon the angelia, not by reproducing its factual content verbatim but by transforming it for poetic and ideological purposes. He argues that the angelia does not vanish within the ode; rather, it is reconfigured into a poetic proclamation that fuses fact with fiction. In Pindar’s case, the angelia provides a structural backbone for the odes, which he amplifies through myth, metaphor and cultural ideology. Pindar treats this device as a point of departure rather than a rigid template. The epinician ode often elaborates on the victor’s name, his father’s name and his polis – often invoking local mythology to enhance civic prestige – as well as on trainers, the event and the festival. Pindar extends this framework by introducing comments on sons (and other family members), whether living or deceased, and even manipulating genealogies to serve poetic ends, as in the case of Diagoras of Rhodes in Olympian 7. The city, appearing in every epinician ode, emerges as a central element in Greek identity, with particular emphasis on the cities of the West. Olympian 12, celebrating Ergoteles, introduces a political dimension by presenting the victor as both Himeran and Cretan, thereby illustrating the fluidity of athletic affiliation.
Miller highlights the role of trainers as participants in victory (cf. Pin. Ol. 8, 10; Nem. 4, 5, 6; Bacch. 13), a topic often neglected in scholarship. Pindar explicitly celebrates the excellence of the trainer Melesias, emphasising the interplay of talent, skill and systematic training. Miller even suggests that Melesias functions almost as a ‘co-dedicant’ of Olympian 8. The event, as staged within the festival, emerges as a critical component of the angelia and a potential basis for praise. Miller further observes that ponos – the notion of strenuous effort – is associated not only with the heavy events but also with equestrian victors, an attribution that may seem paradoxical given their non-participation in the physical contests. He also notes that Pindar’s account of the first Olympic games differs from Pausanias’ version (5.8.5–11), reflecting alternative traditions. Finally, the chapter considers epinician catalogues of past victories, which serve to augment the glory of the present victor and his family. Nemean 2 provides a striking example of how such catalogues evolve from the herald’s angelia into a richly elaborated poetic construct.
In Chapter 3, ‘Epigrammatic Elaborations’, Miller adopts the same organisational framework for epigrams as for the odes. Citing numerous examples from CEG, he observes that epigrams frequently extend beyond naming the victor and his father to incorporate references to the broader family, thereby shaping memory ‘not as it happened, but as they wished it to be remembered’ (p. 149). These inscriptions also magnify the significance of the victor’s city, enhancing his civic identity and prestige within the community. In addition, epigrams may comment on the event, sometimes through inscriptions on athletic equipment, and often include laudatory remarks. One such text (CEG 372) records that a victory was achieved ‘without dust’, while another (CEG 794) asserts that the athlete remained unbeaten. A further example (CEG 825) commemorates a wrestler who never suffered a fall and enumerates his four defeated opponents. Festivals, by contrast, occupy a less prominent position in epigrams, which function in many respects as condensed catalogues of achievement.
Miller (like Nicholson) addresses the case of Kyniska, the first female victor in the Olympic chariot race (CEG 820), whose ‘extraordinary accomplishment’ warrants exceptional treatment. Although only three lines survive from the inscription on the statue base discovered in the Altis, this text constitutes a remarkable instance of a woman commemorated within a genre and setting traditionally reserved for male achievement.
Miller makes the important observation that, whereas epinician odes were composed for an elite and erudite audience, epigrams addressed a broader public, functioning as permanent, visible and silent memorials, but were on the other hand fleeting in their reception. The surviving epigrams exhibit a markedly more formulaic character than the odes, minimising mythological, genealogical and political elements. Miller persuasively demonstrates that the epigram, as a literary genre, does far more than record bare facts. He traces stylistic developments over time, noting that early examples are austere and adhere closely to the presumed structure of the angelia, while later epigrams display increasing sophistication.
This fine monograph is clearly intended for readers already conversant with epinician poetry and Greek athletics; it presupposes a high level of prior knowledge, which inevitably limits its accessibility to non-specialists. Miller provides an exemplary bibliography and a comprehensive index locorum, but the general index (barely exceeding a single page) omits entries for significant figures such as Ergoteles (pp. 1–8, 105–8), Diagoras (p. 104) and Kyniska (pp. 173–81). Although the study necessarily concentrates on a relatively small corpus of texts, it exhibits originality of theme, methodological rigour and nuanced close readings, complemented by accurate and lucid translations. Miller’s work constitutes a substantial contribution to the scholarship on epinician and epigrammatic traditions. It is a demanding but rewarding book, absorbing for those equipped to engage with its technical detail.
In Aristocracy and Athletics in Archaic and Classical Greece (2005) Nicholson examined how aristocratic ideology was expressed through athletic commemorations. In Victory and Celebration Nicholson continues to focus on the Greek elite largely overlooking non-aristocrats who had few, if any, avenues for public representation. He argues that the odes and statues commissioned by victors were not intended merely to record athletic prowess but to define the very meaning of athletics. Triumphs at the Panhellenic games, he contends, functioned as instruments of political propaganda, becoming vehicles for political dominance, while, as commemorative monuments, serving to consolidate elite authority and shape collective memory. The discussion offers little on the meaning of victories at the numerous local festivals (cf. Z. Papakonstantinou on the Great Asklepeia of Kos in: ZPE 234 [2025], 183–8).
The volume is organised into three main parts of interrelated themes, supplemented by two appendices devoted to five odes of Pindar, a glossary, an extensive bibliography and an index (but no index locorum). Part 1, ‘More-Than-Mortal Excellence’, is divided into four chapters. The first, ‘Making the Most of Athletics’, offers a nuanced discussion of athletics as a distinctive human pursuit, reflected in victory odes and other commemorative media. Here, Nicholson demonstrates how victors aspired to areté not merely within the athletic sphere but as an ideal encompassing the entirety of life. This analysis remains largely confined to the period of the epinician poets.
The second chapter, ‘Escaping the Competition’, explores the dynamics of oral memory, emphasising its improbable stories, ‘victories without dust’ (pp. 37–9), the lack of rivalry between great athletes, the lack of appreciation for losers, serial victors like Theogenes (sic), and the construction of victory catalogues.
The third chapter, ‘Beautiful (Male) Bodies’, discusses beauty and nudity, in relation to which victors are magnificent (both in appearance and performance), sometimes erotic symbols, and marks of excellence. Nicholson is aware of the focus on the male and points out that females depicted on statues, for instance, are clothed and ‘associated with, culture, construction, and artifice’ (p. 86).
Finally, ‘More Than Mortal’ examines the ways in which odes and dedications elevated the victorious athlete to a quasi-divine status, someone greater than the average mortal, as in the hero cult of Diagoras. Nicholson proposes that athletic victory was not particularly meaningful in itself but needed to be interpreted through the memorials.
Part 2, ‘Politics’, explores the significance of athletic success in archaic and classical Greece. Under ‘Leaders’ Nicholson shows how publicly commemorated victories could result in civic leadership. He notes that Pindar draws analogies between victorious athletes and Homeric heroes, even though the heroic mode of individual combat celebrated in epic poetry was anachronistic in an era dominated by hoplite fighting. Since the poet embraces such outdated warfare, readers may wonder how accurate his treatment of athletics is.
‘Born Excellent’ examines the aristocratic ideology linking athletic success to inherited excellence. ‘Victor and City’ emphasises victory as a communal achievement, balancing individual glory with civic pride. ‘Making Greece’ considers athletics as a unifying cultural force shaping Greek identity. Finally, ‘Not for the Money’, a provocative title, argues that memorials, especially Isthmian 1.41–51, reveal that aristocratic athletes competed not for money but for success and excellence. Nicholson acknowledges the long-standing controversy over ‘amateur’ and ‘professional’ status in both the ancient and the modern worlds. Yet one may ask how far these themes varied among social classes and city-states – Sparta comes to mind – and how they compare with later Greece and other Mediterranean cultures.
Part 3, ‘Specific Events’, comprises a concise 78 pages addressing hierarchical differences among athletic contests, such as those between boxing and other events, men and boys, gymnic and hippic competitions, racehorse and mule races. Certain chapters, notably those on boxing and youth events, receive more detailed treatment than others, including wrestling, pankration and footraces. In the chapter on boxing Nicholson contends that, although this discipline represented the most violent of the heavy events, its victors were portrayed as ‘superior but not lawless, strong but not violent, and worthy of leadership in the city’ (p. 218). Nicholson further argues that eminent boxers achieved feats surpassing those of other athletes both in myth and reality, embodying morally admirable, heroic qualities. Although boxing may have been the most brutal contest, evidence from the Panathenaic victory list (IG II2 2311) and the Aphrodisias inscription (CIG 2758), cited by Nicholson, indicates that the pankration commanded higher financial rewards than boxing. Nicholson asserts that in the time of Pindar the physical form of boxers was regarded as aesthetically pleasing, notwithstanding the facial injuries inherent to the sport.
In ‘Youth Events’, Nicholson examines the two distinct categories of contests commemorated in memorials for younger athletes, which were fewer in number, but perpetuated the association between victory, leadership and inherited excellence. In ‘Horse Races’ Nicholson focuses on the high social status and wealth associated with chariot and horse racing, where the memorials emphasise excellence, prestige, lineage, elite identity and aristocratic superiority. He highlights the significance of these core events in victory, particularly from the point of view of the polis, with reference to male elite victors, horses, jockeys and drivers. Memorials underscore themes of prestige, lineage and superiority, situating equestrian victories within the framework of civic ideology and elite self-representation.
Despite the marginal treatment of events for females, Nicholson (like Miller) discusses Kyniska (Cynisca in Nicholson), conjecturing that her participation in the Olympic chariot race of 396 bce was facilitated by Sparta’s exceptional political position. Her victory epigram proclaiming her as the first female Olympic victor is interpreted as both a marker of wealth and a challenge to the ideal of ‘manly excellence’, in line with Xenophon (Ages. 9.6). Intriguingly, Nicholson compares Kyniska with Pherenike, who, only eight years earlier, had appeared at Olympia disguised as a trainer, thereby illuminating the complex interplay of gender, status and athletic ideology in the classical world.
In ‘Events at the Margins’ Nicholson begins with remarks on the weightlifter Bybon, translating the inscription (IvO 717) as ‘Bybon, the son of Pholas, threw me over his head with one hand’ (p. 268). Here, readers should be cautious: a more plausible rendering of the term ὑπερεβάλ
ετο is ‘he lifted above his head’, given that the rectangular rock that was discovered at Olympia weighs 143.5 kg. In the modern era one may add that the Icelandic strongman Hafþór Júlíus Björnsson can raise such a weight with one hand but not hurl it any distance. Although Nicholson draws partly on the reviewer’s earlier discussion (based on his experience as a powerlifter: G&R 24 [1977], 111–20), he proposes that Bybon’s ‘dedication is an aspirational victory dedication, a bid for the kind of recognition paid to regular victors, and a bid for recognition for weightlifting or weight throwing itself’ (p. 269). There is, however, no evidence that the inscription refers to an agonistic contest rather than a display of strength. Despite ample space on the stone, it lacks any mention of victory, family, city or the defeat of rivals. It was probably one of many physical demonstrations at Olympia not formally connected with the games.
Secondly, Nicholson addresses the memorials commemorating mule-cart racing (Ol. 4, 5, 6), remarking that victors in these contests valued their achievements as highly as those in the more prestigious hippic events. Although competitions for mule carts lasted for only 56 years, they featured in every Olympiad during Pindar’s lifetime. Nicholson suggests that they ended because of a lack of interest among both spectators and competitors. Other scholars, however, attribute the abolition to dissatisfaction among the Elean organisers with the repeated triumphs of Western Greek athletes – all of Pindar’s victors are in this category – and to the ancestral curse on Elis and its attitude towards mule breeding. In view of other modern analogies, Nicholson may want to consult the article by T.G. Antikas, an academic and mule-cart driver, in Olympica Hippica (2004), Chapter 13.
Nicholson believes that his book is accessible to a broad readership, including undergraduates unfamiliar with Greek culture; indeed, it has received positive reviews in The New Criterion (5 Aug. 2025). Although innovative in its treatment of Pindar and his time, it is not a comprehensive introduction to ancient athletics. Nicholson acknowledges that ‘there are no chapters on the Bronze Age or the periods after the rise of Alexander the Great or the Roman Empire’ (p. 2). While the book effectively focuses on the distinctive moment when statues and Pindaric odes jointly articulated the cultural value of athletic victories, introductory readers may wonder how relevant this is for the remaining seven centuries of the Olympic games not discussed. Advanced students and specialists, particularly those working on Pindar, will benefit greatly. The book stands out for its clarity of expression and wide-ranging themes, though it raises concerns with its speculative claims. Overall, the volume is an engaging and thought-provoking study that is enjoyable to read.
