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Enhancing Preparedness and Response to Flood Disasters: A Scoping Review of Training Activities for Response Staff

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  16 September 2025

Mehmet Kokoç Open the ORCID record for Mehmet Kokoç [Opens in a new window] ,
Perihan Şimşek ,
Abdülkadir Gündüz  and
Salih Akyıldız
Mehmet Kokoç*
Affiliation:
Department of Management Information Systems, School of Applied Sciences, Trabzon University, Trabzon, Türkiye
Perihan Şimşek
Affiliation:
Department of Emergency Aid and Disaster Management, School of Applied Sciences, Trabzon University, Trabzon, Türkiye
Abdülkadir Gündüz
Affiliation:
Department of Disaster Medicine, Institute of Health Sciences, Karadeniz Technical University , Trabzon, Türkiye
Salih Akyıldız
Affiliation:
Department of Basic Education, Fatih Faculty of Education, Trabzon University, Trabzon, Türkiye
*
Corresponding author: Mehmet Kokoç; Emails: kokoc@trabzon.edu.tr; kokocmehmet@gmail.com
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Objective

This study examines the scope and trends of empirical research on training activities for flood disaster response teams.

Methods

A scoping review, adhering to Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses Extension for Scoping Reviews guidelines, was conducted in June 2024 across four electronic databases and grey literature. The analysis included experimental and quasi-experimental studies published since 2005. An initial pool of 1193 studies was identified, 18 met the eligibility criteria and were included in the final analysis.

Results

These studies revealed three key themes: 1) evaluation and improvement of operational procedures, 2) preparation of response teams, and 3) management of health-related issues.

Conclusion

The results highlight the limited availability of empirical evidence in this area, reflecting the relatively small number of studies focusing specifically on training activities for flood disaster response teams. However, research in this field has shown growth since 2010, with a notable integration of educational technologies in most studies. Key training topics include psychological first aid and the evaluation of operational plans. Given the increasing frequency and severity of flood disasters due to global warming, further research is essential to develop and implement effective training programs, enabling response teams to address such emergencies more efficiently and comprehensively.

Keywords

disasterdrillexercisefirst respondersfloodtraining

Information

Type
Review Article
Information
Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness , Volume 19 , 2025 , e263
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2025. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Society for Disaster Medicine and Public Health, Inc

Introduction

Floods are the most frequent disasters triggered by natural events worldwide. In 2023, 164 floods caused $20.4 billion in losses and 7,763 deaths. 1 Climate change increases their frequency and severity. Global warming raises atmospheric water vapor, leading to heavier rainfall and flash floods. Melting glaciers and rising sea levels trigger coastal flooding.Reference Tabari 2 Changes in soil moisture and stream flows disrupt the water cycle, increasing flood risk. Combined with urbanization and poor infrastructure, these factors heighten societal vulnerability.Reference Liu, Kinouchi, Tan, Heng, Chhuon and Zhao 3

Beyond inland flooding, coastal flooding caused by typhoons, hurricanes, and tornadoes has intensified with climate change.Reference Forbis, Patricola, Bercos-Hickey and Gallus 4 Although forecasting and early warning systems have been developed for such hazards, shortcomings in monitoring, dissemination of alerts, communication, and response capacity continue to magnify their impact.Reference De Perez, Berse, Depante, Easton-Calabria, Evidente, Ezike and Van Sant 5 These disasters bring significant human and economic costs, from evacuations and sheltering to the provision of facilities for people with special needs. In the 2021 floods in Germany, early warnings were issued but poor risk communication and preparedness led to 200 fatalities and $40 billion in economic losses.Reference Manandhar, Cui, Wang and Shrestha 6 During the 2011 Thailand floods, the absence of a real-time warning system and conflicting messages from the government created uncertainty and resulted in 813 deaths and $46 billion in damage.Reference Loc, Park, Chitwatkulsiri, Lim, Yun, Maneechot and Phuong 7 In Hurricane Katrina (USA, 2005), despite early forecasts and a mass evacuation, gaps in planning, resources, and communication contributed to nearly 2,000 deaths and $173 billion in losses. 8

While the economic impact of flood disasters is significant, the greatest damage is to human health. Rapidly rising water causes many drownings, and the mud and debris carried by floodwaters can result in serious trauma from slips and falls. Furthermore, objects carried by the water can strike people, causing impact-related injuries.Reference Doocy, Daniels, Murray and Kirsch 9 Electrocution is another risk during floods, occurring when electrical wires or appliances come into contact with water. Prolonged exposure to cold water can lead to hypothermia, putting victims at risk.Reference Vinet 10

Properly trained rescue teams can identify specific swiftwater hazards, such as currents exceeding 1.5 m/s, submerged debris fields, and entrapment zones, as well as structural collapse risks including cracked load-bearing columns, unstable foundations, and partially detached building elements in flood settings. They can execute rescue operations within the first critical hours with minimal error, thereby increasing the probability of safe victim recovery and improving survival rates. 11 , Reference Harris, McCarthy and Liu 12 Trained teams apply context-specific rescue techniques, for example, using cribbing and shoring methods to stabilize rubble before extricating a trapped person, thereby preventing secondary injury. 13 Training also prepares them to carry out rapid, structured assessments of victims, checking airway, breathing, circulation, and consciousness in under a minute. In addition, it enables them to make well-prioritized life-saving decisions in high-pressure, hazardous environments and to keep communication within the team clear and closed-loop. Specialized instruction further builds technical skills, from managing the incident scene under the Incident Command System to moving effectively in swift water, using specialized equipment, securing knots, setting anchor systems, and performing rope rescues in both vertical and horizontal contexts. Therefore, specialized training for search and rescue teams in flood disasters is essential to achieving consistent, safe, and efficient operations.Reference Movahed, Khaleghi-Nekou, Alvani and Sharif-Alhoseini 14

Climate change and rapid urbanization have increased the frequency of urban flash floods and swift water incidents. As a result, rescue skills for fast-moving water have become essential for effective flood response.Reference Ragucci 15 , Reference Phillips 16 These training programs are typically delivered by fire departments, national rescue agencies, or accredited training centers. These training programs generally include modules such as hydrodynamics, rope techniques, self-rescue, and victim extraction. However, health-related aspects such as hypothermia management, waterborne infections, or triage in aquatic environments are often underrepresented in standard curricula.Reference Rashid, Alexakis and Pereira 17 Formal competence frameworks have been developed to describe the knowledge, skills, and abilities required for swift water rescue. Based on these competences, specialized teams are established, trained, and deployed during flood events to carry out technical rescues under high-risk conditions. 18

Traditionally, first responder training included lectures, simulations with mannequins or actors, discussion-based activities, tabletop exercises, and practical skills training.Reference Baetzner, Wespi and Hill 19 The use of educational technologies has transformed these methods. Distance learning, augmented reality, virtual reality, and serious games now provide immersive and cost-effective environments.Reference Bozkurt 20 These innovations are valuable for flood preparedness, where real-life scenario replication is often difficult and costly. First responder training, especially exercises for disaster preparedness and response, faces time, cost, and safety limitations.Reference Sutton and Tierney 21 Technological advances have addressed these issues. Computer programs, serious games, instructional videos, augmented and virtual reality, and advanced simulations are now widely used.Reference Burkhammer, Lawner and Berge 22 , Reference Weinstein, Bortolin, Lamine, Herbert, Hubloue, Pauwels, Burke, Cicero, Dugas, Oduwole, Ragazzoni and Corte 23 A recent systematic review found that these methods often match or outperform traditional training.Reference Baetzner, Wespi and Hill 19

Virtual reality has recently been used effectively in disaster medicine and management training. It has been applied to earthquakes,Reference Feng, González and Amor 24 fires,Reference Gasparetto, Pilz, Pavan and Costella 25 CBRN threats,Reference Mossel, Peer, Göllner and Kaufmann 26 and mine evacuations.Reference Andersen, Gaab, Sattarvand and Harris 27 Other methods, including classroom training, tabletop exercises, video-based training, and live simulations, prepare teams for chemical mass casualty incidents, airport disasters, radiation events, transport accidents, and explosions. These approaches increase self-efficacy, knowledge, and confidence.Reference Cardós-Alonso, Inzunza and Gyllencreutz 28 –Reference Kim, Shin and Kim 30 However, there is little research on flood first responder training using either technology-based or traditional methods.

Floods are high-risk events requiring rescue teams to respond in complex and extraordinary circumstances. Regular training is essential to prevent a decline in the proficiency of disaster response skills. However, both cost and safety concerns, as well as the difficulty of creating realistic flood environments, can hinder regular training and exercises.Reference Dufty 31 This study aims to compile the literature on training activities conducted to prepare response staff for flood disasters. By synthesizing available evidence, this review directly informs the development of tailored flood response training programs that address the critical gaps identified above.

Method

In flood disasters, the search, rescue, and medical skills of first responders are crucial for saving lives. However, because disasters are unpredictable and occur at irregular intervals, first responders may go for long periods without applying these skills in real-life situations. This lack of practice can lead to a gradual decline in proficiency, particularly in complex or high-risk tasks.Reference Wegmann 32 Therefore, conducting regular and sufficiently frequent training in realistic disaster scenarios is of great importance to maintain and reinforce these critical skills. The aim of this study is to systematically review studies that investigate training methods to enhance the search, rescue, and intervention skills of first responders in the field.

A systematic literature review gathers and synthesizes existing literature to analyze research on a specific topic to answer a designated research question.Reference Weinstein, Bortolin, Lamine, Herbert, Hubloue, Pauwels, Burke, Cicero, Dugas, Oduwole, Ragazzoni and Corte 23 This review was conducted in three stages as suggested by Gough et al.: (i) identification of the research question, (ii) development of systematic research strategies, and (iii) data collection and analysis.Reference Gough, Thomas and Oliver 33 , Reference Lockwood, Munn and Porritt 34

Structuring the Research Question

The Population, Interest, and Context (PICo) frameworkReference Gasparetto, Pilz, Pavan and Costella 25 was used to develop the research question. The population was defined as “first responders,” the interest as “flood disasters,” and the context as “training/exercise activities.” Consequently, the research questions are: “How have training and exercise activities for first responders’ search and rescue skills in flood disasters been examined in the literature?” and “What are the main findings and potential knowledge gaps?”

Development of Systematic Research Strategies

To systematically collect literature data, The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) framework was followed, which involves three steps: identification, screening, and eligibility checking. The scoping review approach applied in this study is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1.

PRISMA flow diagram for the identified studies.

Identification

A comprehensive literature searching stage was conducted on June 30, 2024, in the Web of Science, Scopus, Medline, and PubMed databases. The grey literature review used various academic and open-access databases. Academic articles and conference proceedings were accessed through Google Scholar, Scopus, and Web of Science. Reports were obtained via the general Google search engine. Theses were found in databases such as EBSCOhost and ProQuest but were excluded as they did not meet the inclusion criteria.

The references from the identified articles in the period between 2005 and 2024 (July) were exported to Endnote. Choosing to start our review in 2005 is related to the fact that, since 2005, digital technology has made a great revolution in training methods. This has resulted in the appearance and spread of innovative training methodologies, especially virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), simulation software, and online educational platforms.Reference Sudiarno, Dewi, Widyaningrum, Ma’arij and Supriatna 35 , Reference Wang, Chen, Yu, Liu and Jing 36

To identify and collect relevant research, a collection of keywords was used. “Flood,” “disaster,” “drill,” “exercise,” and “training” were the main keywords. Table 1 presents the search terms derived from the merging of the main keywords. The identification of 753 studies has been the result of this phase.

Table 1.

Search terms

Screening

At this stage of the research process, the titles of the articles were first reviewed, followed by an examination of their abstracts. Based on the predefined inclusion criteria, the full texts of articles with abstracts deemed relevant to the research question were then evaluated for eligibility. The screening process was conducted independently by two researchers (MK, PŞ), and any disagreements were resolved through discussion until consensus was reached. As a result, the screening phase was completed with the identification of 49 articles that met the established criteria for inclusion in the study.

Eligibility Checking

A limited number of studies have been conducted on the training of first responders at disaster scenes. To address this gap, a scoping review was conducted, and records were selected for inclusion in the review based on specific inclusion and exclusion criteria. The selection criteria were based on the scope, methodology, and context of the research, as well as the year of publication, type of study, and language. Accordingly, the study employed three inclusion and exclusion criteria for the records to be enrolled.

Inclusion criteria

  • • Peer-reviewed empirical works (including original research, review articles, or system development studies) on first responders’ training to respond to both flash floods and slow-onset floods. Grey literature sources (e.g., reports, theses, conference papers) were also included, even if not peer-reviewed, to capture practical insights and unpublished or context-specific knowledge relevant to the review question.

  • • Available in full text in English.

  • • Published in 2005 or later.

  • • Training applied to the target group.

Exclusion criteria

  • • Focusing on disaster preparedness training for community members rather than responders.

  • • Focusing on developing training systems/programs without systematically collecting data to evaluate performance or effectiveness.

  • • Review articles, book chapters, editorial materials, and conference proceedings.

Nine articles were obtained from the data extraction and analysis stage.

Data Collection and Analysis

Data extractions were performed independently by three reviewers (Author 1, Author 2, and Author 3) to avoid selection and reporting bias. Descriptive data such as publication year, country, participants, training method, and study design were extracted for the articles included in the review. The researchers then used MAXQDA 2020 to identify patterns among the main findings of the studies, employing different coding frameworks such as aim, method, and results.

The literature search yielded 1,697 articles. In addition, a total of 504 articles were removed due to duplication, leaving 1,193 articles to be reviewed for title and abstract. During this review, 1,144 publications were eliminated, resulting in 49 articles being included for full-text evaluation. Eighteen of the full-text articles met the inclusion criteria for the study and were included in the review (see Figure 1).

Results

Methodological Characteristics and Distribution of Reviewed Studies

This scoping literature review identified several articles on educational activities whose effectiveness was investigated or evaluated by the target groups involved in the response phase for flood disasters. The list of articles and their relevant characteristics is presented in Appendix. The compiled publications indicate that studies on the preparedness and training of response teams for flood disasters have increased since 2010. As shown in Figure 2, the majority of articles were published after 2015.

Figure 2.

Distribution of publications by years.

Among the reviewed studies, six employed a quasiexperimental design, and five used a case study approach in which training activities were applied to target groups. The remaining articles included document review and case analysis (n = 1), ethnographic qualitative research (n = 1), field-based applied experimental design (n = 1), and disaster exercise reports (n = 4).

The review found that emergency response teams, water safety professionals, disaster relief workers, health care workers, engineers, and national and regional authorities responsible for flood management were the target audiences of the training activities on flood disaster preparedness and response.

Training Techniques Used in Flood Disaster Preparedness

In the reviewed articles, more than one training technique was usually employed. Figure 3 illustrates the proportion of different training techniques used in the reviewed studies.

Figure 3.

Distribution of training techniques.

The techniques included drills (34.4%), simulation-based training (15.6%), tabletop exercises (15.6%), face-to-face training (9.4%), mobile-based training (6.3%), workshops (6.3%), and online training modules, self-study, serious games, and virtual exercises (each 3.1%). Drills and simulation-based training were the most common, providing practical, hands-on experience and virtual simulations to enhance response skills. Face-to-face and mobile-based training offered flexibility and accessibility, while online modules, workshops, and self-study provided additional resources and learning methods. This diverse range of techniques highlights the importance of a multifaceted approach in preparing response teams for flood disasters.

Emergent Themes in Flood Disaster Preparedness

As a result of the review of studies, three themes emerged including evaluation and improvement of operational procedures,Reference Prior and Roth 37 –Reference Ikeda, Kuribayashi and Tanaka 45 preparation of response teams,Reference Haselbach, Thies, Evans, Apple and Tindall 40 , Reference Šimić 46 –Reference Halbgewachs, Angermann, Wieland, Kippnich and Lechner 50 and management of health-related issuesReference Wade, Crompton and Howard 51 –Reference Kamauzaman, Fudzi, Ghani and Ibrahim 54 as seen in Figure 4.

Figure 4.

Emergent themes in flood disaster preparedness.

Evaluation and Improvement of Operational Procedures

As reported in multiple included studies, operational procedures play a critical role in disaster management.Reference Haselbach, Thies, Evans, Apple and Tindall 40 The findings indicate that exercises and training greatly contribute to the coordination of the entities involved in the response, help develop the fastest and most appropriate response actions, and narrow the gap between intuitive and optimal solutions.Reference Schryen, Rauchecker and Comes 55 Su et al. investigated the effectiveness of the Flood Wargame Assistance Platform (FWGAP), which simulates flood events and allows participants to implement standard operating procedures. The platform also aimed to provide disaster prevention personnel with a way to strengthen their knowledge and skills, and ability to identify potential problems that may arise during a real disaster. Nearly half of the respondents who evaluated the platform noted that a war game played without explaining scenarios could help identify problems in standard operating procedures and promote greater horizontal coordination between disaster response departments.Reference Su, Lin, Huang, Yang and Tsai 38

In the early stages of a major disaster, local authorities and bystanders provide most of the response. When capacity is exceeded, international help may be needed. A previous study tested international disaster response assistance within the European Union with an exercise during the worst flood scenario for the North Sea region. The exercise assessed procedures for requesting and receiving assistance, and for initiating response and deploying expert teams. It showed the need to improve the timing of international requests and coordination between national and international systems.Reference Beerens, Kolen and Helsloot 39

Disaster management involves many stakeholders. Coordinating data and communication between them is essential. Haselbach et al. conducted virtual desktop exercises to improve collaboration among infrastructure professionals, emergency personnel, and decision-makers during floods. These exercises also identified the data and communication resources needed. They were effective in improving planning, communication, and coordination. They also supported the development of operational procedures, particularly during pandemics and in multi-institutional settings.Reference Haselbach, Thies, Evans, Apple and Tindall 40 Local governments, together with disaster management stakeholders, have also conducted field exercises. Such exercises help reinforce team roles, test communication channels, and enhance response capacity. 41 – 44

For establishing operational procedures, both flood hazard and crisis mapping are essential for responding to disasters, helping officials plan evacuation routes, locate shelters, and allocate resources effectively. They support the development of flood mitigation strategies, such as the construction of levees, floodwalls, and drainage systems.Reference Pralle 56 In this regard, Ikeda et al. conducted a flood hazard mapping training course with field exercises for engineers involved in the disaster management process and reported that the course was effective and successful.Reference Ikeda, Kuribayashi and Tanaka 45 Halbgewachs and colleagues conducted a field exercise in the Ahr Valley, affected by the 2021 German floods. The aim was to develop fast and effective crisis mapping for flood disasters. The exercise increased the situational awareness of response teams. Data collection, processing, and analysis were carried out using unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). These processes were tested in the field and yielded successful results.Reference Haselbach, Thies, Evans, Apple and Tindall 40

Preparation of Response Teams

First responders perform search, rescue, and evacuation tasks in the field during disasters. They need regular training to keep their skills sharp. With today’s evolving technology, simulation-based and computer-based training can be used to develop these skills. This analysis found that as a result of the training conducted by Simic et al. with the contemporary constructive simulation system, military personnel gained knowledge on how to perform their tasks during a flood disaster and their cooperation with other team members improved during this training process.Reference Šimić 46 Peden et al. evaluated the effectiveness of the online flood safety training program they organized for water safety professionals. As a result of the study, the challenges of flood mitigation and response (inadequate equipment, training, and government support, etc.) were reported, as well as an increase in participants’ willingness to respond to a disaster.Reference Peden, Mayhew, Baker, Mayedwa and Saunders 47 Haselbach et al. organized virtual, scenario-based discussions and group activities. The aim was to improve knowledge sharing, decision-making, and operational coordination. These activities helped participants understand challenges faced in flood events. They also supported the use of accurate and timely data to improve response plans.Reference Haselbach, Thies, Evans, Apple and Tindall 40 Similarly, Chen et al. reported that field and desk exercises improved decision-making, crisis management, communication, and coordination. Teams were also better prepared for flood disasters.Reference Chen and Borodzicz 48

Mokhtar and colleagues developed a serious game-based training model for flood response teams. The model targets both professionals and civilians. It aims to improve knowledge, skills, and attitudes. It also strengthens decision-making and self-assessment. Explanatory feedback helped users learn from mistakes. Realistic scenarios increased both decision-making skills and motivation.Reference Mokhtar, Ismail and Muda 49

Increasing digital and technical competencies is becoming increasingly important for disaster response teams. In their study, Halbgewachs et al. aimed to enable teams to independently collect and process unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) data and transfer it to crisis command centers. To this end, participants were trained in crisis mapping methods and machine learning-based automatic object recognition techniques.Reference Halbgewachs, Angermann, Wieland, Kippnich and Lechner 50

Management of Health-Related Issues

Psychological damage is one of the most significant effects of disasters on human health. Wade et al. evaluated the effectiveness of a training program consisting of a face-to-face and an online training module on managing the psychological effects of disasters. As a result of the training provided to health and community service staff, it was found that their confidence in using psychological healing skills increased.Reference Wade, Crompton and Howard 51 Kang et al. applied a simulation-based psychological first aid training program to disaster responders, targeting pregnant women. Participants were also given access to a mobile application that provided information on disaster conditions and psychological first aid techniques. As a result of the study, it was found that the experimental group had superior knowledge, confidence, and self-efficacy compared to the other groups.Reference Kang and Choi 52 Similarly, Choi et al. developed a simulation-based and mobile application-supported psychological first aid training program for health care professionals, and it was stated that knowledge and competence improved as a result of the training.Reference Choi, Jung, Choi and Ko 53 Kamauzaman et al. found that training in the Integrated Medical Response Protocol significantly improved health workers’ knowledge, attitudes, and practices during disasters. This protocol, developed by various relevant agencies, streamlines how different emergency services respond, allowing them to work in a more coordinated manner.Reference Kamauzaman, Fudzi, Ghani and Ibrahim 54

Discussion

In the search for empirical research on training activities for personnel involved in the response phase to prepare for flood disasters, it was found that there was an extremely limited number of articles on the subject. Most of the studies were aimed at improving the skills of the response teams in providing psychological first aid after flood events. Psychological health issues such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, anxiety, and general psychological distress after disasters are common among both responders and disaster victims.Reference Beaglehole, Mulder, Frampton, Boden, Newton-Howes and Bell 57 , Reference Naushad, Bierens and Nishan 58 After Hurricane Katrina, which caused one of the largest floods in the world, the incidence of PTSD in the state of Mississippi was found to be 22.5%. Additionally, according to Zenker et al. after the devastating floods in Germany in 2021, the prevalence of PTSD in the community was 28.2%.Reference Zenker, Bubeck and Thieken 59

Psychological first aid (PFA) provides practical help to restore safety, reduce anxiety, improve coping, and increase hope in trauma victims. It reduces immediate stress symptoms, promotes safety, and supports positive coping in survivors.Reference Allen, Brymer and Steinberg 60 –Reference Gilbert, Abel, Vernberg and Jacobs 61 Strengthening mental health services is a key component of disaster-ready public health systems and remains a global need.Reference Ryan, Kako and Garner 62 Training in PFA and other mental health practices should be expanded. Floods also affect physical health in multiple ways, yet research on managing these effects is limited.

Operational plans are vital in disaster management to ensure effective operations, speed up relief, maintain essential functions, and support recovery.Reference Whitworth 63 Some flood preparedness training for emergency teams has focused on assessing and developing such plans. Both digital tools, such as war games and virtual exercises, and traditional field exercises have been used.Reference Mokhtar, Ismail and Muda 49 These methods help identify plan deficiencies and improve knowledge and coordination. Technology enables virtual exercises, while field exercises are more realistic but costly. Further research should compare their effectiveness and explore how they can be integrated into combined training.

This review found limited training for flood disaster response. Floods challenge emergency and rescue services and require coordinated action to protect affected populations.Reference Beerens, Kolen and Helsloot 39 Search and rescue training for medical responders includes disaster first aid and triage to manage mass casualties and evacuations.Reference Moriya and Tanjoh 64 Strong interagency coordination is needed for large-scale evacuations, supported by robust communication systems and skills. Floods also highlight the need for first responders to operate specialized rescue equipment.Reference Gula and Szafran 65 More research is needed to identify essential skills for flood response teams and the most effective training methods.

Studies show that virtual and tabletop exercises improve decision-making in flood response teams.Reference Haselbach, Thies, Evans, Apple and Tindall 40 –Reference Mokhtar, Ismail and Muda 49 These exercises allow participants to simulate decisions, assess variables, and practice coordination in a low-risk setting. In complex floods, they help teams internalize protocols and anticipate challenges. McLennan et al. found that simulation-based exercises also enhance emergency management decision-making.Reference McLennan, Hayes, Bearman, Penney, Butler and Flin 66 Integrating such training into preparedness programs can improve readiness and response outcomes.

Studies show that flood response teams are trained in hazard and crisis mapping. The use of drones in crisis mapping is notable. Hazard maps identify risky areas and guide intervention planning. Crisis maps improve situational awareness and resource allocation during incidents. Drones provide high-resolution images and real-time data, allowing rapid field assessment.Reference Yucesoy, Balcik and Coban 67 With floods increasing due to climate change, such technology is increasingly important.Reference Mudashiru, Sabtu, Abustan and Balogun 68 –Reference Karmakar, Sherly and Mohanty 69 Structured training in drone use and mapping techniques enables accurate, fast, and coordinated interventions while optimizing manpower, time, and resources.

The studies in this review used multiple training methods for disaster response teams, from traditional courses to innovative technologies. More than half included a technology-based approach, such as mobile or computer-based training. A recent systematic review found that technology-based training for medical disaster response often matches or outperforms traditional methods.Reference Sutton and Tierney 21 In Greece, a brief educational program significantly improved hospital staff knowledge of disaster plans, showing the value of targeted training.Reference Bistaraki, Waddington and Galanis 70 Combining traditional and technology-based approaches may offer the most effective preparedness training. This review also found an increase in first responder training after 2010, likely linked to advances in educational technologies simulating flood conditions.

Limitations

This scoping review has several limitations. First, the limited number of studies reflects the niche nature of the topic rather than a weakness in the review process. An important limitation is that the literature search was confined to four databases (Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, and MEDLINE). This may have excluded studies in sources such as CINAHL, ERIC, and Embase. Databases focused mainly on nursing or educational theory were excluded, as the review addressed training for first-line flood response teams. Second, only English-language publications were included, possibly omitting relevant studies in other languages. Third, variability in study designs and outcomes makes it difficult to draw uniform conclusions on training effectiveness. Lastly, most studies were from high-resource settings, which may limit applicability in low-resource contexts. Despite these limitations, the review provides valuable insights and identifies priorities for future research and development in flood disaster response training.

Conclusion

This review found little empirical evidence on flood response training. The use of virtual reality and simulation-based training is promising for preparedness. Key needs include better response procedures, essential skills, and health management. Climate change makes further research urgent. Future studies should compare traditional and technology-based training. They should also develop cost-effective and realistic training models. Such work is vital for timely and effective flood response, protecting lives and communities.

Abbreviations

CBRN

Chemical, Biological, Radiological, and Nuclear

CINAHL

Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature

ERIC

Education Resources Information Center

EU

European Union

FEMA

Federal Emergency Management Agency

FWGAP

Flood Wargame Assistance Platform

MEDLINE

Medical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System Online

PRISMA

Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses

PRISMA-ScR

Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses Extension for Scoping Reviews

TUBITAK

The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Türkiye

VR

Virtual Reality

Supplementary material

The supplementary material for this article can be found at http://doi.org/10.1017/dmp.2025.10195.

Data availability statement

Data will be made available on request.

Author contribution

MK: Conceptualization, investigation, methodology, validation, writing—original draft; PŞ: Data curation, investigation, methodology, validation, writing—original draft; AG: Supervision, writing—review & editing; SA: Supervision.

Funding statement

This research was supported by a project funded by the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK, Grant ID: 121K580).

Competing interests

None.

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Figure 0

Figure 1. PRISMA flow diagram for the identified studies.

Figure 1

Table 1. Search terms

Figure 2

Figure 2. Distribution of publications by years.

Figure 3

Figure 3. Distribution of training techniques.

Figure 4

Figure 4. Emergent themes in flood disaster preparedness.

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