Discussion

The aim of this study was to analyze the relationship between sexual victimization experiences of Spanish men and women and the frequency of positive and negative sexual cognitions according to their content. We considered different types of sexual victimization experience (i.e., CSA, AASA, and CSA+AASA) and the severity of the sexual victimization during adolescence/adulthood. Overall, results showed that individuals who had experienced sexual victimization reported a higher frequency of some positive sexual cognitions, particularly when they had experienced CSA+AASA and the severity of the sexual contact during adolescence/adulthood was greater (i.e., attempted rape/rape). However, individuals who had experienced sexual victimization did not appraise their sexual cognitions more negatively than non-victims, except for intimate sexual cognitions with negative affect, which were more frequent in male victims of sexual abuse.

Men who had experienced only AASA reported a higher frequency of exploratory sexual cognitions with positive affect that non-victims. Such frequency was higher when the severity of the sexual abuse was higher (i.e., attempted rape/rape). Exploratory PSC are characterized by an interest in seeking a variety of sexual stimuli. As shown in previous studies, victims of sexual abuse often report unusual patterns of sexual activity. They sometimes have more frequent sexual activity and a higher number of relationships, which sometimes increases the likelihood of exposing themselves to more risky sexual situations (Browne & Finkelhor, Reference Browne and Finkelhor1986; Putnam, Reference Putnam2003; Romano & De Luca, Reference Romano and De Luca2001). In addition, the fact that such men have a higher tendency to search for sexual variety makes them likely to increase their vulnerability to expose themselves to a higher number of sexual interactions and situations in which they are at risk of being victimized.

In our study, men who had experienced CSA+AASA reported a higher frequency of positive cognitions of sexual submission. The frequency of this type of cognitions was higher when the sexual contact was attempted rape or rape. These results are in contrast with traditional gender roles and sexual selection, as cognitions of sexual submission are more often experienced by women, while men tend to have more frequent sexual thoughts in which they play a dominant and active role as a way of showing their own masculinity (Birnbaum, Reference Birnbaum2007; Critelli & Bivona Reference Critelli and Bivona2008; Leitenberg & Henning, Reference Leitenberg and Henning1995; Pawlowski, Atwal, & Dunbar, Reference Pawlowski, Atwal and Dunbar2008). From a cultural viewpoint, Spain is considered a country that upholds traditional gender roles and beliefs (Gutiérrez-Quintanilla, Rojas-García, & Sierra, Reference Gutiérrez-Quintanilla, Rojas-García and Sierra2010), and previous research on sexual cognitions has revealed that men tend to have more cognitions related to dominance contents, while women tend to express more cognitions related to submission contents (Moyano & Sierra, Reference Moyano and Sierra2014). It should be noted that Renaud and Byers (Reference Renaud and Byers2006) obtained similar results in Canada, as they reported that men who had experienced CSA reported more positive cognitions of sexual submission. However, the authors did not consider revictimization sexual experiences during adolescence/adulthood as we did in the present study. This aspect is of interest considering that childhood sexual victimization increased the risk for later revictimization during adolescence/adulthood in men and women (see Basile & Smith, Reference Basile and Smith2011; Parillo, Freeman, & Young, Reference Parillo, Freeman and Young2003; Widom, Czaja, & Dutton, Reference Widom, Czaja and Dutton2008).

We also found differences between men who had experienced CSA+AASA and non-victims: the former reported a higher frequency of intimate NSC than the latter. The fact that men who experienced CSA+AASA reported more intimate cognitions with negative affect might be due to the relationship that has been found between intimacy and emotions of shame and fear in victims of sexual traumas. These individuals tend to assess relationships in terms of dominance and submission, to the detriment of other aspects such as love (Meston, Rellini, & Heiman, Reference Meston, Rellini and Heiman2006). The negative affect associated with intimate sexual cognitions is in line with the findings of previous studies that suggested that male victims of sexual abuse have difficulties establishing satisfactory intimate relationships (Elliott, Mok, & Briere, Reference Elliott, Mok and Briere2004). It should be noted that intimate cognitions encompass not only intimate or romantic sexual interactions with a partner but also explicit sexual behaviors involving the genitals (e.g., giving and receiving oral sex, being naked, sexual intercourse). These types of images may be similar to sexual victimization experiences and therefore more easily remembered and triggered with negative affect (Maltz, Reference Maltz2012). It is important to note that in the present study we did not consider the identity of the perpetrator of sexual abuse, which would be relevant for further interpretation. Our result would be better explained if the sexual abuse was perpetrated by an intimate partner.

In women, compared to non-victims, those who had experienced both CSA+AASA reported more exploratory PSC. In addition, the frequency of such cognitions was higher when the subtype of the victimization was sexual coercion. It should be noted that sexual cognitions and fantasies sometimes tend to be linked to later sexual behavior, especially when they are associated with masturbation and visualization of pornographic material (Bartels & Gannon, Reference Bartels and Gannon2011). Thus, exploratory cognitions (i.e., cognitions that involve group sexual activities) may lead individuals to have more sexual encounters, as has previously been observed in female victims of sexual abuse (Paolucci, Genuis, & Violato, Reference Paolucci, Genuis and Violato2001; Wind & Silvern, Reference Wind and Silvern1992). A number of studies have found that this relationship is stronger when victimization was experienced during both childhood and adolescence/adulthood (Kaltman, Krupnick, Stockton, Hooper, & Green, Reference Kaltman, Krupnick, Stockton, Hooper and Green2005). Women who had experienced CSA+AASA also reported more positive cognitions of sexual dominance. In this case, the severity of the sexual contact was not associated with the frequency of the cognitions. To our knowledge, there is no previous evidence of a relationship between sexual victimization experiences in women and a higher frequency of cognitions of sexual dominance, as few studies have explored sexual cognitions in sexual victims. Yet, indirect evidence suggests that female victims of violence tend to show higher levels of anger and aggressiveness and a higher desire for revenge, and they often have the feeling that they did not fight enough against the perpetrator, which sometimes leads them to perpetrate aggression (Kendra, Bell, & Guimond, Reference Kendra, Bell and Guimond2012; Maneta, Cohen, Schulz, & Waldinger, Reference Maneta, Cohen, Schulz and Waldinger2012). Moreover, several studies suggest that sexual victims report feeling powerless. As a result, their need to feel power and dominance is higher (Finkelhor & Browne, Reference Finkelhor and Browne1985). These findings suggest that female victims might use this type of sexual images as a strategy to cope with the traumatic event. In our study, being a victim of attempted rape or rape was also associated with a higher frequency of cognitions in which impersonal aspects such as objects and materials acquire an erotic value. This may explain the higher interest of victimized individuals for solitary activities rather than dyadic activities (Santos-Iglesias, Calvillo, & Sierra, Reference Santos-Iglesias, Calvillo and Sierra2013).

Several similarities and differences between men and women emerged in the relationship between sexual victimization and sexual cognitions. Both men and women who had being sexually victimized reported a higher frequency of exploratory cognitions with positive affect. This finding seem to indicate that victims of sexual abuse are likely to try to overcome the psychological aftermath by using maladaptive coping strategies, which might be reflected in higher levels of sexual activity and higher interest in sensation seeking through contact with other people (Filipas & Ullman, Reference Filipas and Ullman2006; Messman-Moore, Walsh, & DiLillo, Reference Messman-Moore, Walsh and DiLillo2010). In addition, men and women who had experienced both CSA and AASA reported a higher frequency of positive cognitions of sexual submission and dominance, respectively, which is in contrast with expectations based on traditional gender roles. The data obtained in the present study do not clarify the reasons for this lack of adherence to traditional expectations in men and women. Interestingly, previous research in both Canadian and Spanish community samples has also revealed a lack of coherence between the affect and content of men and women’s sexual cognitions and traditional gender roles. In particular, Renaud and Byers (Reference Renaud and Byers2001) and Moyano and Sierra (Reference Moyano and Sierra2014) have shown that women experience more cognitions involving submission as negative, while men report a higher frequency of dominance NSC, which somehow contradicts some assumptions based on traditional gender roles, probably because individuals feel at risk or worried about acting out their cognitions.

Interestingly, male victims of sexual abuse reported more intimate sexual cognitions with negative affect than female victims of sexual abuse. Previous studies indicate that men who have experienced sexual victimization report more distress than women who have been sexually victimized because they feel that their sense of power, control and masculinity is jeopardized (Peterson et al., Reference Peterson, Voller, Polusny and Murdoch2011). This explanation seems even more relevant if we take into account that, compared to women, men are more often abused by individuals of their same sex (Dube et al., Reference Dube, Anda, Whitfield, Brown, Felitti, Dong and Giles2005). Spain has increasingly developed protective legislation for female victims of abuse (e.g., Ortiz-Barreda, Vives-Cases, & Gil-González, Reference Ortiz-Barreda, Vives-Cases and Gil-González2012). From both a social and legislative perspective, male victims of abuse are likely to feel less supported than female victims. This may contribute to their higher perception of lack of protection, social stigma, or even higher negative feelings such as shame or guilt, which is probably expressed through the negative affect associated to their intimate cognitions.

Our study has several limitations. First, our sample was composed of heterosexual individuals who had been enrolled in a relationship for at least six months and were mostly young and highly educated. Therefore, the generalization of the results to the general population and samples who differ in relationship status, sexual orientation, educational level, and age may be limited. Second, although we considered the period during which individuals experienced sexual victimization or abuse –childhood and/or adolescence/adulthood–, we did not consider the exact time when it occurred. Future studies should consider the time when the victimization occurred or at least the time elapsed between the latest victimization experience and the assessment. This is important because, as some authors such as Frazier (Reference Frazier2003) indicated, some aspects such as the distress associated with the experience of coercion or abuse decrease over time, at least in women. Finally, we did not consider the identity of the perpetrator. This aspect has been found to be associated with the aftermath of abuse experiences (Ullman, Reference Ullman2007).

Nonetheless, our study provides important information about the content and affect of sexual cognitions in a sample of men and women who have experienced sexual abuse. This information may be useful to therapists because sexual thoughts and cognitions are an important part of cognitive approaches in the treatment of sexual dysfunctions. Therefore, understanding the most common contents of sexual cognitions and their affect is likely to contribute to better guiding training in sexual cognitions, which should be focused on the identification and acceptance of negative cognitions and the facilitation of positive affect.