Introduction
It is well established that disaster experience can enhance risk perception, initiate policy learning, and improve preparedness processes. However, disasters are inherently unpredictable, hazardous, and costly events.Reference Taylor, Zarb and Jeschke 1 At this point, disaster exercises have become the most widely preferred means of developing expertise in disaster management.Reference Steen-Tveit, Munkvold and Rustenberg 2 The disaster management literature widely acknowledges disaster exercises as a core component of training and preparedness. These exercises are typically classified into 3 main types: tabletop, functional, and full-scale (FSEs).Reference Klein, Brandenburg, Atas and Maher 3 , Reference Mahdi, Jafri and Allana 4 FSEs, which constitute the present study’s focus, represent the most complex type of disaster exercise. They involve a simulated response scenario in which exercise players enact operational functions specified in response plans, tested under realistic conditions within a low-risk environment.Reference Abualenain, Alhajaji and Alsulimani 5 –Reference Tien Hung 8 Although FSEs require significantly more resources and effort to plan and implement compared to other types of exercises, participation in FSEs is regarded as a process that enhances knowledge and skills critical to disaster response—particularly in areas such as critical thinking, problem-solving, decision-making, and confidence-building.Reference Abualenain, Alhajaji and Alsulimani 5 , Reference Meesters and Wang 9 –Reference Waring, Moisi, Barrett and Gordts 11
In the context of disaster education, FSEs offer participants a valuable opportunity to synthesize, analyze, and integrate core concepts essential for effective response and preparedness.Reference Walz 12 , Reference Fisher, Means and Corson 13 Since experiential learning constitutes a central component of disaster exercises, engaging in such exercises as a scenario participant or an observer can provide significant opportunities for substantive learning gains.Reference Köse, Unver and Tastan 14 Although FSEs offer substantial contributions to disaster risk management, the existing literature predominantly examines medical response-focused exercises—particularly in the context of earthquakes,Reference Zhou, Sun and Zhang 15 , Reference Karagiannis, Saini and Synolakis 16 CBRN incidents,Reference High, Lovelace, Gansneder, Strack, Callahan and Benson 17 , Reference Lenz and Richter 18 and mass casualty eventsReference Bharosa, Lee and Janssen 19 , Reference Husna, Kamil, Yahya, Tahlil and Darmawati 20—where the performance of medicalReference Doumi, Alassaf and Aljahany 21 , Reference Mavis, Ogle, Lovell and Madden 22 and nursing studentsReference Köse, Unver and Tastan 14 , Reference Chou, Chiang, Chen and Cheng 23 has been extensively evaluated. In this regard, the present study is the first to examine students receiving education in disaster management who participated in an avalanche-focused FSE as live scenario actors and observers. Accordingly, this mixed-methods research aims to evaluate the role of FSEs in learning processes and to investigate the learning outcomes of participants based on the different roles they assumed during the exercise.
Research Methodology
The study used a mixed-methods approach incorporating qualitative and quantitative research methods. The quantitative component is an objective research procedure based on measurement and observation, allowing for repeatability and verification.Reference Bekman 24 On the other hand, the qualitative research method is a type of inquiry that follows a process aimed at presenting perceptions and events realistically and holistically within their natural settings.Reference Aydın 25 The mixed-methods approach offers an opportunity to compensate for the limitations of each method through synthesis, thereby enhancing the overall reliability of the research.Reference Tunalı, Gözü and Özen 26
The present study was designed to address the research question: “How are the skills of crisis management, communication, teamwork, and decision-making under stress shaped through experiential learning among students of the Emergency Aid and Disaster Management department who participated in the avalanche exercise?”
Research Hypothesis:
H1: Engagement in a full-scale avalanche exercise, as a form of applied training grounded in experiential learning theories, significantly enhances undergraduate disaster management students’ cognitive and affective learning outcomes.
Participant
Live scenario actors—roles frequently undertaken by students—are critical in full-scale exercises (FSEs), as they simulate incident cases and contribute significantly to creating a realistic impact during the exercise.Reference Chen, Cheng, Lin, Shih and Chou 27 , Reference Cowling, Swartzberg and Groenewald 28 In this regard, the study population consisted of undergraduate students from the Department of Emergency Aid and Disaster Management who participated either as live actors or observers in the Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO) Avalanche FSE, which was conducted in Erzurum, Turkey, between March 5 and 7, 2025. Due to the limited number of participants, no sampling procedure was applied; instead, the entire population was targeted. A total of 51 students who volunteered to participate after receiving informed consent forms—detailing the study’s purpose, scope, and data collection procedures—were included in the research.
Full-Scale Exercises Area
The exercise site, Konaklı Ski Center, is located at the coordinates 39.7810° N and 41.2265° EReference Kartal, Özyazıcıoğlu and Kılıç 29. It is situated within the Konaklı Neighborhood, Palandöken District, approximately 20 kilometers from Erzurum. The ski center is located on the western extension of the Palandöken Mountains, positioned along the northern slopes of the range.Reference Altaş, Altaş, Çavuş and Zaman 30 The exercise focused on scenarios involving an avalanche triggered by heavy snowfall and individuals stranded on chairlifts. 833 personnel were deployed to execute multidimensional operational scenarios, including avalanche search and rescue, cable car and helicopter-assisted evacuation, high-angle rescue, snowcat-assisted extractions, and stretcher evacuation performed on skis (see Figure 1).
Exercise Site (a) helicopter evacuation, (b) manual search area, (c) chairlift evacuation.
Data Collection Tools
The items in the quantitative data collection instrument were developed by the researcher following a comprehensive academic literature review. Accordingly, the instrument included 15 statements related to the following subdimensions: knowledge, content, relevance, communication, willingness, self-confidence, collaboration, realism, time, safety, briefing, and motivation (see Appendix). To measure participants’ perceptions and attitudes regarding these subdimensions, a 5-point Likert scale was used (1 = Strongly Disagree, 5 = Strongly Agree). In addition, participants were asked to provide information on key demographic and contextual variables—gender, avalanche training, previous exercise experience, and the role assumed in the exercise—to enable an adequate interpretation of the results. The questionnaire was administered online, and responses were collected digitally.
The qualitative data were gathered using an open-ended response form composed of 5 questions developed by the researcher and grounded in relevant literature. These questions aimed to elicit participants’ views on their experiences during the avalanche exercise, their evaluations of the involved stakeholders, the exercise’s educational contributions, and the lessons learned from the event. The researcher collected the qualitative data in written form between March 15 and March 25, 2025.
Data Analysis
The analysis in this study was based on 3 types of data. Field notes incorporating brief and supplementary interviews were used to explore the exercise contextually. The quantitative data obtained within the scope of the study were analyzed using basic descriptive statistical methods via the SPSS 29.0 software package. For the analysis of the qualitative data, the thematic analysis technique was employed—a method that involves merging codes to summarize the findings in a coherent and meaningful way.Reference Adeoye-Olatunde and Olenik 31 The 6-phase thematic analysis process includes familiarizing with the data, generating initial codes, identifying themes, reviewing potential themes, defining and naming themes, and reporting writing.Reference Terry, Hayfield, Clarke, Braun, Willig and Rogers 32 In the first phase, repeated text readings were conducted to gain a general understanding and identify key ideas. Following this step, the coding was based on the data obtained. The coding process involves identifying, categorizing, and labeling patterns, similarities, and differences that emerge from the interview data.Reference Adeoye-Olatunde and Olenik 31 The coding process was conducted using an inductive approach, allowing the codes to emerge directly from the data.Reference Strauss and Corbin 33 Inductive coding refers to a bottom-up analytical strategy whereby codes emerge directly from the data rather than being predefined.Reference Adeoye-Olatunde and Olenik 31 During the third step, codes that showed conceptual similarities were organized into themes representing underlying explicit and implicit content patterns.Reference Joffe, Harper and Thompson 34 In the following phase, potential themes were reviewed, refined into more general and abstract concepts, and then named by the content they represented. In the final phase, the entire analysis was reviewed for consistency, and the data were presented in tabular form.
Limitations
Although this study involved a disaster management exercise, it had certain limitations, including a small sample size, limited generalizability, and the use of a self-report questionnaire that may be subject to recall bias.
Findings
Among the exercise participants, 60.8% were male; 68.6% had previously received avalanche training, while 58.8% had no exercise experience. Participants actively involved in the exercise assumed roles such as chairlift evacuation (56.9%), helicopter evacuation (21.6%), observer (11.8%), and civilian/disaster victim relative (9.8%).
An analysis of participants’ evaluations of the exercise process revealed high levels of satisfaction, particularly in the areas of field knowledge (76.5%), Critical Decision-Making (74.6%), field observation (70.6%), motivation (60.8%), and self-confidence (49.1%). These findings indicate that the exercise contributed not only to technical competencies but also to psychosocial learning outcomes. On the other hand, a considerable proportion of participants expressed criticism regarding the inadequacy of instructions (58.8%), the lack of up-to-date practices (47%), the realism of the scenario (54.9%), the sufficiency of safety measures (56.8%), and the overall communication process (72.5%) (see Table 1).
Participants perceptions of learning gains from the exercise
Note. Values in bold represent the highest levels of agreement among the participants for the specified criteria. For example, in the assessment of field knowledge, the percentages for “Agree” (37.3%) and “Strongly Agree” (39.2%) were bolded to highlight the predominant perceptions of the students.
The findings indicate that participants gained knowledge, attitudes, and skills relevant to disaster contexts; however, significant areas for improvement remain at the organizational level. While the exercise offered a substantial learning opportunity that supported individual development, limitations in fundamental elements such as safety and communication constrain this potential.
As a result of the qualitative data analysis, the effects of participation in disaster exercises on learning outcomes were categorized under 6 thematic headings: communication, safety, practice, management, emotional and behavioral factors, and scenario (see Table 2).
Themes and codes influencing learning outcomes in exercise participation
Each theme was analyzed using a multi-layered coding system and enriched with participant statements, as presented below.
Theme 1: Communication
In the exercise process, communication emerged as a critical learning component that directly impacted inter-team coordination and victim interaction. Specifically, the use of common terminology, continuous information flow, clarity, and briefings enhanced the quality of the learning process. However, communication breakdowns such as attempts to establish dominance, avoidance of criticism, and conflicts disrupted the process. Participants indicated that effective communication was not limited to the transmission of information but also contributed to increasing psychological safety. (P45: “When the team that rescued us first arrived, they emphasized the need to secure ourselves and made the process more comprehensible by explaining their actions.”) In contrast, some participants highlighted issues arising from weak communication, stressing the problems encountered when this process was ineffective. (P4: “The biggest shortcoming in the exercise was the lack of coordination and communication. This led to delays and disorganization in response to the incidents.”).
Theme 2: Safety
The participants’ perceptions of physical and psychological safety directly influenced their learning motivation during the exercises. Environmental conditions, organizational factors, and personal elements emerged as subcomponents of this theme. Proper implementation of safety protocols fostered a sense of integration with the process, while inadequate measures limited the learning environment. (P11: “I felt safer because they were operating in the buddy system and communicated where they were securing the knots.”).
Theme 3: Practice
Team performance, intervention procedures, and technical accuracy were key components of applied learning. Participants reported increased knowledge levels, mainly through actively engaging in field roles, observing, and following the teams’ actions. (P43: “The teams contributed to our learning by demonstrating their actions, which helped us gain experience.” and P39: “By analyzing the weaknesses and strengths of the teams’ work, I better understood how I could improve myself.”) However, differences in methodology and patterns of technical errors emerged as factors limiting the exercise’s impact on learning.
Theme 4: Management
The Management theme largely depends on the transparency of decision-making mechanisms, role distribution, leadership, planning, time management, and resource utilization efficiency. P42 highlighted the disruptions in learning that occurred when operational management was lacking: “Better time management and regular updates for those trapped should be ensured.” Similarly, P40 pointed out that the involvement of individuals without managerial competence negatively impacted the process: “The involvement of untrained personnel in managing or coordinating the exercises adversely affected the process.” In contrast, P10 reflected on their learning outcomes: “I realized how crucial planning, seriousness, and communication within the team are in professional life.”
Theme 5: Emotional and Behavioral Factors
The emotional responses and behavioral tendencies formed during the exercise processes have shaped the cognitive aspects of learning and the development of participants’ professional identities. Emotion-based skills such as empathy, self-confidence, stress management, and resilience were considered under this theme. (P20: “The exercise contributed to the development of my empathy and provided valuable experiences related to my profession.”) P16 explained their internal transformation with the following words: “I have a fear of heights, but this exercise allowed me to overcome that fear by riding the chairlift.” P34 noted that the exercise heightened their professional sensitivity: “The role I assumed made me realize that I need to work more enthusiastically in my profession and be more conscious about protecting people’s lives and property.”
Theme 6: Scenario
The scenario theme is related to the structural design of the exercise, its level of realism, and scientific foundation. Participants indicated that the scenario’s originality, complexity, and credibility were decisive factors in the success of the learning process. (P48: “I observed that the scenario did not fully reflect the challenges that could be encountered in a real avalanche disaster, and its scientific foundation was weak.”) P31 expressed how the scenario changed their perspective on events: “The exercise partially reflected real life and changed my perspective on disasters.”
The findings suggest that disaster exercises impart technical skills and generate multidimensional learning outcomes, including communication, safety perception, managerial awareness, and psychosocial sensitivity. Participants reported that these processes contributed to their personal development and professional competence. However, the realism of the scenario, educator competence, and planning deficiencies emerged as barriers limiting the learning process.
Discussion
As the scale of the exercise increases, the network and partnership interactions among various participating organizations and individuals also expand, making improved collaboration the most common benefit of participating in FSEs.Reference Meesters and Wang 9 , Reference Waring, Moisi, Barrett and Gordts 11 Indeed, previous studies have shown that FSE participants gain collaboration knowledge and enhance their ability to cooperate in real emergency situations.Reference Sjöberg and Inzunza 35 , Reference Gundran, Lam and Tuazon 36 Based on both quantitative and qualitative findings, the study observed that participants gained awareness of the importance of inter-organizational collaboration in disaster and emergencies and exhibited positive tendencies towards developing practical collaboration skills in multi-actor environments. The findings indicate that cognitive and affective learning processes were hindered in situations with unclear roles and poor communication. In contrast, when precise role distribution, effective communication, and a collaborative environment built around common goals were established, learning occurred more deeply and holistically.
Another crucial factor in terms of the educational benefits of exercises is realism.Reference Premuzic, Dakic and Petrunic 6 , Reference Fisher, Means and Corson 13 , Reference Greenberg, Voevodsky and Gralla 37 Thus, both the intervention teams, the actors simulating injuries, and the observers can experience the impact of environmental factors, resource limitations, and rapidly evolving situations on cognitive and physical processes.Reference Waring, Moisi, Barrett and Gordts 11 , Reference Chen, Cheng, Lin, Shih and Chou 27 , Reference Flauto, Marcis and Pallavicini 38 The study findings indicate that FSEs contribute to individual transformation and the construction of professional identity by supporting the development of skills, attitudes, and professional awareness through realistic scenarios and collaboration-based structures beyond the mere transmission of knowledge. However, a noticeable consistency was observed between the low satisfaction rate regarding the realism of the scenario (54.9%) and qualitative criticisms about the scenario’s lack of scientific grounding and its divergence from real-life situations. This highlights the negative impact of the lack of theoretical grounding on quantitative and qualitative learning outcomes.
Another factor frequently mentioned by participants is the impact of communication on the educational processes. Previous exercise studies have also emphasized the need for transparent and standardized communication channels at all levels of exercise,Reference Gundran, Lam and Tuazon 36 , Reference Sheikhbardsiri, Doustmohammadi, Mousavi and Khankeh 39 with communication being suggested as an area for improvement.Reference Flauto, Marcis and Pallavicini 38 , Reference Salway, Adler, Williams, Nwoke, Roblin and Arquilla 40 The study highlights the decisive role of communication in the learning process within FSEs. Participant experiences indicate that effective communication supports both cognitive and emotional learning. However, communication barriers such as attempts to establish dominance, avoidance of criticism, and conflict resulted in delays in intervention and a loss of trust, disrupting the process. In this regard, there is a need to increase communication-focused modules in exercise scenarios and structure intra-team interaction patterns clearly and standardize.
Effective intervention is facilitated by accurate, structured, and readily accessible information for decision-makers.Reference Sheikhbardsiri, Doustmohammadi, Mousavi and Khankeh 39 , Reference Sherman, Türkay, Moulton, Friedman, Darani, Daly and Kayden 41 Although providing accurate and timely information flow is a critical issue in exercises, some studiesReference Salway, Adler, Williams, Nwoke, Roblin and Arquilla 40 have shown that this process is well-managed, while othersReference Klein, Brandenburg, Atas and Maher 3 have observed disruptions. The study findings reveal significant disruptions in intra-team and inter-team information flow. Specifically, communication gaps, role ambiguities, and managerial deficiencies negatively impact planning and time management processes. As a result, delays in intervention and loss of trust were reflected in participant statements. These findings demonstrate that disaster exercises have the potential not only to develop individual skills but also to enhance organizational knowledge management and decision-making competencies, creating multidimensional learning environments. In this context, full-scale field exercises should be designed to strengthen individual and institutional reflexes, with a systematic structure for ensuring continuous information flow, role clarity, and decision support mechanisms.
Previous studies have discussed emotional and behavioral response changes during exercises, including stress, anxiety, concern,Reference Sherman, Türkay, Moulton, Friedman, Darani, Daly and Kayden 41 self-confidence, adaptability to changing situations,Reference Flauto, Marcis and Pallavicini 38 and reluctanceReference Salway, Adler, Williams, Nwoke, Roblin and Arquilla 40. Additionally, they have identified that the exercise helps in enhancing self-confidence,Reference Gundran, Lam and Tuazon 36 gaining experience,Reference Gist, Daniel and Grock 42 strengthening leadership skills, and promoting teamwork. Our study has revealed that increases in critical thinking, decision-making, and motivation significantly contributed to problem-solving in crisis scenarios and the development of professional awareness. Participants indicated that their emotional skills, such as empathy, self-confidence, and resilience, had improved and that this development directly contributed to their professional identity formation and personal awareness. In this regard, FSEs are multidimensional tools that enhance emotional resilience, improve behavioral adaptation, and strengthen professional identity.
Additionally, the duration of FSEs and safety concerns also influence learning outcomes.Reference Waring, Moisi, Barrett and Gordts 11 , Reference Cowling, Swartzberg and Groenewald 28 , Reference Carlson 43 In this regard, some studies have mentioned the existence of significant safety risks, such as faulty procedures,Reference Gist, Daniel and Grock 42 the individual and functional skills of exercise personnel,Reference Sheikhbardsiri, Doustmohammadi, Mousavi and Khankeh 39 and delays in evacuation.Reference Salway, Adler, Williams, Nwoke, Roblin and Arquilla 40 Our study highlights significant safety risks arising from environmental conditions, organizational structure, and individual factors, particularly regarding the effective use of exercise duration and the safety of personnel and victims. The ability of participants to engage effectively in the learning process is directly linked not only to the quality of content but also to the provision of a safe and predictable learning environment. In situations where perceptions of physical and psychological safety are low, a decline in participant motivation, disruption in the learning process, and weakened observer-actor interaction were observed. These findings confirm the learning limitations based on safety emphasized in the literature. Therefore, it is critical to restructure full-scale field exercises from a pedagogical perspective and in terms of safety standards, as this is essential for the sustainability of learning outcomes at both the individual and institutional levels.
Finally, the most significant learning contribution is related to the roles assigned. Studies suggest that regardless of the role assumed during the exercise, observers and actors simulating affected individuals in FSEs are expected to gain knowledge, communication skills, understanding, willingness, and self-confidence as a result of the exercise.Reference Meesters and Wang 9 , Reference Zinan, Puia and Kinsley 44 In this regard, our study suggests that independent of roles, participants demonstrated development in cognitive aspects such as high-angle rescue, avalanche search methodologies, understanding team roles, intervention procedures, prioritization criteria, and safety assessments. Additionally, participants showed growth in sensory aspects, including the recognition of ethical issues, the identification of authority boundaries, willingness to intervene, and self-confidence.
Conclusion
The findings obtained from qualitative and quantitative data in this study indicate that the full-scale avalanche exercise produced multidimensional learning outcomes at both cognitive and emotional levels for the participants. While the quantitative findings revealed high positive perceptions in learning components such as field knowledge, critical thinking, motivation, self-confidence, and collaboration, the qualitative findings provided a deeper, more comprehensive understanding by grounding these gains in field experiences. Participants’ critiques regarding communication deficiencies, feelings of insecurity, and organizational disarray mainly highlight the need for learning environments to be structured around emotional safety and the potential for procedural shortcomings to limit learning. In this regard, professionally conducted, disciplined, and highly serious FSEs will enhance participants’ cognitive and affective learning levels in managing avalanche interventions.
This study has revealed that full-scale field exercises foster individual knowledge and skill development and provide multidimensional learning environments that support institutional-level planning, decision-making, and coordination capacity. It was found that participants gained not only technical knowledge but also emotional and behavioral skills such as empathy, self-confidence, and crisis response. In this context, role-based experiences and scenario structures that align with real-life situations are decisive for the sustainability of the learning process. However, it was observed that structural weaknesses, such as communication deficiencies, role ambiguities, and safety risks, had limiting effects on learning outcomes. In this regard, exercise coordinators must adopt a scientific, realistic, scenario-centered approach that ensures active participation from all stakeholders in the design and planning processes based on intervention plans, as this approach is crucial for both the effectiveness of the learning process and the safety of the exercise.
Supplementary material
The supplementary material for this article can be found at http://doi.org/10.1017/dmp.2026.10317.
Data availability statement
The data supporting the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Acknowledgments
I gratefully acknowledge the support of the Erzurum Governorship and the Rectorate of Erzurum Technical University during the exercise participation process.
Funding statement
There is no funding.
Competing interests
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Ethics statement
Approval from the Erzurum Technical University Scientific Research and Publication Ethics Committee was obtained with the decision dated 06.03.2025 and numbered T.4/11 for implementing the information form regarding the purpose and scope of the study and the measurement tool.
