Introduction
Store image is an important factor in the consumer's decision-making process (Nevin & Houston, Reference Nevin and Houston1980). As a cue to a store's image, a store sign and its visual design and content form (which may include the name of the store or brand) serve as vital elements that can immediately attract potential customers. In particular, a store's name can be used as an extrinsic signal to suggest and maintain quality perceptions. With a well chosen, memorable name, retailers can establish trust and a loyal following, which in turn means repeated business. For those who understand how store signs can influence patronage decisions and improve competitiveness in the marketplace, therefore, much effort is exerted to create advertising and marketing strategies designed to attract and retain customers.
The linguistic and cultural relationship as gleaned from store signs and names in the retail landscape has been explored in the literature (cf. Schlick, Reference Schlick2003; Dimova, Reference Dimova2007; Leeman & Modan, Reference Leeman and Modan2009; Li, Reference Li2015; Weyers, Reference Weyers2016; Alomoush, Reference Alomoush2019). The issue of store signage matters especially to the tourism industry. The tourist business, in fact, is the most frequently cited reason for improving store image. As Lazaro and Medalla (Reference Lazaro and Medalla2004) emphasized, tourism has become one of the key drivers of local economies. The inclination, language-wise, toward the use of English is an important influence, as English is considered the lingua franca of the tourism industry. This study aims to contribute to the literature by investigating the naming practices adopted by one segment of the hospitality sector, the hotel industry. In particular, the naming patterns of 397 hotels in the metropolitan city of Taipei were examined. An analysis of English names of Taipei hotels shows that budget and middle-ranked hotels (2-/3-star) are more likely to adopt unconventional forms. These include puns, concatenations, phonetic substitutions, alphanumeric combinations, punctuation marks, code-switching, and ‘netspeak’. In contrast, names of high-end hotels (4-/5-star) are more likely to belong to the name of a well known international hotel chain or to incorporate foreign terms. In essence, hotel names help potential patrons get an idea of what level of services they might receive and, in some instances, personalize the traveling experience.
Methodology
In total, 397 English names of Taipei hotels were obtained from Google Hotel Finder, which also provides the location and ranking of hotels. The ranking system ranges from 2 stars to 5 stars; there is no 1-star ranking. Rankings are based on price, amenities, services, and types of accommodations available. All hotels are located in Taipei City and within various districts. The English names of the collected hotels are identical to those on the hotels’ website. It is noted that some are members of a hotel chain, which may or may not be considered separately. For example, Green World Hostel and Green World Songshan are part of the Green World Hotel Group. In this case, only one hotel name, Green World, is noted. By contrast, the hotels listed under the Beauty Hotel Taipei Series do not necessarily carry the parent company's name. Instead, the retailer has adopted more creative linguistic strategies by giving each hotel a unique name, e.g. Starbeauty Hotel, Hotel Bchic, and Hotel Bfun. In this case, the three (token) examples of the same hotel (type) would be noted individually.
The names were then compiled in an Excel spreadsheet, which allows the researcher to easily search for keywords and record the frequency of occurrences of particular lexical items. As most of the samples include the word ‘Hotel,’ this designation is dropped in the presentation of data examples for space considerations. Additionally, for space and simplicity, linguistic reduction may be applied to the discussion of multiple hotels. For example, {Horizon, Smile (Inn)} is a linguistic reduction of Horizon Inn and Smile Inn. Similarly, {(Inhouse) Boutique, Residence} is a linguistic reduction of Inhouse Boutique and Inhouse Residence. In discussions where samples are presented, braces are employed for organizational and stylistic purposes.
In regards to the breakdown by ranking, 3-star hotels predominate, with a total of 181 (46%). For 2-, 4-, and 5-star hotels, the total counts are 104 (26%), 78 (20%), and 34 (8%), respectively.
Results
Types of accommodations
Hotel names may include words denoting the type of accommodation that best describes the establishment or a word or words that retailers would like to emphasize in the minds of potential patrons. For example, the designation ‘suite’ suggests that the establishment may be a good choice for families or travelers who desire a more spacious room. In some cases, suites have a large apartment-like layout with separate living and dining areas. Two examples identified are names of two major local hotel chains: City Suites and Les Suites. The word ‘boutique’ exudes European sensibility and suggests an ambience with a unique décor. Boutique hotels are pricier but considered higher in quality than budget hotels. The ten examples identified include {AT, Cheers, HolyPro, Reedon, Rose, Wego (Boutique)} and the portmanteau Beautique.
Of the various designations of accommodations, ‘inn’ is the most popular, accounting for 48 (12%) of the total sample. Inns are generally smaller hotels with fewer rooms and may have stairways instead of elevators. Examples identified in the list include Inn Cube and {Art, Colors, Energy, Forever, Fortune, Happiness, Kali, Main, Ours, Single, Work, Golden Brick, Red Cabin (Inn)}. The words ‘home’ and ‘house’ in particular connote warm familiarity and domestic comfort; together they constitute 6% (24) of the total. Some examples are {Bee, Enrich, Homey, Humble, Jimmy's, Taipei Cheeky, The Corner (House)} and {Golden, Shilin, Tango, Taipei Happy (Home)}. The Home Hotel aptly sums up its goal in its promotional introduction.
Even though the design of home varies across different cultures, the meaning and the perception of home is beyond boundaries. Our goal is to create a place that is welcoming, comforting and relaxing, a place you can call home in Taiwan! (Home Hotel, 2015)
The term ‘residence,’ a more formal designation, is found in five instances: {Gloria, Inhouse, Leofoo, J Palace, San Want (Residence)}. On a related note, ‘loft’ refers to an area of a structure situated directly under the roof. Three hotel names containing this term {Cheers, NYS (Loft), Aloft Taipei}, however, are misleading in the sense that the actual facilities do not actually have such open space. Finally, seven ‘apartments’ were identified, including {Metro, Sogo, Lane to Life (Apartment)}.
Hostels are definitely a popular choice, especially among budget-conscious backpackers who prefer simple and inexpensive place to stay. The designation ‘hostel’ suggests a dormitory-style communal establishment with shared bathrooms. Examples account for 37 (9%) of the total number and include {Angels’, Backpackers, Duckstay, Holo, Oxygen, Pillow, Uni, Five Elements, Holiday Fun, Mango Station, Old Door, Sleepy Dragon, Triple Tigers (Hostel)}. Similarly, the term ‘capsule’ suggests a no-frills, economical accommodation. The word has a futuristic connotation, evoking the image of a space pod. Some examples are Hey Bear Capsule Hotel and {MUIU, Bouti City, Dongmen 3 (Capsule Inn)}. The capsule concept is also prevalent in densely populated cities like Hong Kong and Tokyo where space is limited. Of the 41 names of hostels and capsules, 35 (85%) are understandably marked 2 stars.
By contrast, for travelers and tourists who desire the wonderful hot spring experience they have come to hear so much about, the keyword to look for may be ‘resort’. Nine of the ten examples identified in the list are names of resorts located in Beitou, a district located in northern Taipei that is synonymous with ‘hot spring’. They include {Beauty Garden, Grand View, Spa Spring, Spring City, SweetMe Hotspring, Gorgeous Hot Spring (Resort)}. The guest rooms in these hotels all include an onsen, or Japanese hot spring tub.
Unconventional forms
Budget and mid-ranked hotels often adopt unconventional names in form. These include acronyms {ECFA}, concatenations {CityInn, GoodMore, SleepBox, Yesinn}, initials {D.G., DB, T.O., HD Palace, NK Hostel}, misspellings {Greatt, Houze, Muzik}, exclamatives {Ximen Wow Hostel, Beimen Wow Poshtel}, punctuation marks, {Simple +, U-rban Inn, Art'otel Ximending, Mono'tel Shilin Hostel}, phonetic substitution {Bchic, Bfun, C U, EzBookers, Urhome, Urtrip}, and ‘netspeak’ {E-home, iTrip Taipei Inn, iTaipei Service Apartment, Livepal Hostel, Nihao @ Taipei Hostel}. The acronym ECFA stands for Economic Cooperation Framework Agreement. The reduplicative Yo Yo refers not to the toy but rather is a double instance of a word phonetically equivalent to the Chinese word you ‘friend’. The Chinese term in the code-switched examples WoHouse and Tai Hope means ‘me, my’ and ‘very,’ respectively. Nicknames in the form of vocative Ar-X (e.g. Ar Tree Hotel) are used for family members and close acquaintances.
Examples of full transliterations, in which Chinese logograms are ‘romanized’ into phonetic representations, were also uncovered. These include Cai She ‘bright house,’ Fu-Hau ‘fortune trench,’ Hau Shuang ‘grand luck,’ Jia Rong ‘fire glory,’ Li Yuan ‘beautiful garden,’ Paiyueh ‘hundred joy,’ San Yon ‘three kinds,’ Shin Shin ‘happy, happy’ and Yueh Guang Juang ‘moon light manor’. Concerning these transliterated cases, two observations were made. First, while the original hotel names in Chinese may contain positive words (e.g. fu ‘fortune,’ rong ‘glory,’ shuang ‘luck,’ yueh ‘joy’) such positive meanings are lost in Romanization. Secondly, it is noted that some of the Romanized hotel names, such as Gwo Shiuan and Yueh Guan Juang (as exactly shown on the promotional materials), are not based on Hanyu Pinyin but seemingly a different transcription system or a mixture of methods (e.g. Wade-Giles, Mandarin Phonetic Symbols II, Yale Romanization). For an insightful discussion on the transcription systems and their influence on orthography, readers may refer to Wu (Reference Wu2019).
Numerals are common among hotel names. Examples with a numeral are 9 Plus, 191 Hotel Nancy, Hotel 73, Ximen 35, Zhongshan 19, Mango 53 Inn, Ningxia No. 2 Inn and a fully written out name One Plus One. The number may serve as a mnemonic device for the street number of the hotel. For example, Ximen 35 is located in the Ximen (‘west gate’) pedestrian area on street #35; Zhongshan 19 in the Zhongshan (lit. ‘central mountain’ but named after Sun Yat-sen) district on street #19; and Ningxia No. 2 Inn near the popular Ningxia Night Market on street #2. Alphanumeric combination can be found in 4Plus, 9ine, G9 Stay, O2 Hotel M12, and Good9Stay. Notably, the number 101 is most likely associated with Taipei 101, currently the eighth-tallest skyscraper in the world. Other hotel names that capitalize on this special number are 101s, Domi 101, Formosa 101, Ximen 101, and Work Inn 101. Instead of an Arabic numeral, Roman numerals may be adopted instead. Examples are K Hotel I/II and Hotel Relax I/II/III/V. The number 4 is noticeably absent, as it is considered an unlucky number in the Chinese culture; its pronunciation is homophonous with the word si, meaning dead.
In some instances, a legitimate English word may be adopted as a substitute for the two-character names in Chinese. Examples include Delight (Da Lai ‘lit. big come’), Regal (Rei Ge ‘lucky style’), Forward (Fu Hua ‘fragrant flower’), and Chair Man (Cheng Mei ‘city beauty’). However, more common are made-up English names that serve as homophonous substitutes for the originals. In the case of Ya Shi Du (‘Asia city’) and Wan Shi Da (‘all things attained’), name-givers attempted the following inventive names in English – Astar and Wonstar. Other examples are Bayman (Bei Men ‘north gate’), Ferrary (Fa Li ‘gorgeous’), Lotty (Lu Di ‘green stem’), and Wallsun (Hua Shan ‘flower mountain’). The hotel name Santos may sound Spanish and could be meaningful (‘saints’), but most likely, the owner selected it because it is similar to the original Chinese name San De (‘three virtues’). Finally, the owner of Bao Ge Li (‘precious stylish beneficial’) have coined a cringe-inducing English name, Burgary.
Names of 2-star hotels are most likely chosen to incorporate puns or colorful descriptions. Examples often play on the word ‘inn,’ which is phonetically equivalent to the preposition ‘in’: Check Inn, Fly Inn, Just Inn, Fun Inn Taipei, I'm Inn Taipei, Place Inn Taipei, Stay Inn Taipei, and Uinn Business. More colorful expressions can be found in Flip Flop, Solo Singer, Diary of Taipei, Here There Hostel, Lane to Life Apartment, Home Sweet Home Guesthouse, On My Way Youth Hostel, and Mr. Lobster's Secret Den Design Hostel. While expressive and imaginative, the lengthy descriptive examples seem to deviate from the general observation about brand names – specifically, a name should be short, unique, and easily pronounced (Haig, Reference Haig2011).
Connoting luxury and refinement
Well known international hotel chains can be found in most major cities around the world. In Taipei, travelers have several options if they prefer brand-name hotels. Examples include Grand Hyatt, Hilton, DoubleTree by Hilton, Marriott, Courtyard by Marriott, Sheraton Grand, Four Points by Sheraton, Holiday Inn East, The Westin, and W Hotel. These US brand-name hotels welcome international travelers to join their loyalty programs, which allow them to earn points for rewards. The high-end hotels Regent (based in UK), Mandarin Oriental (HK), and Evergreen Laurel (TW) enjoy high name recognition in East Asia and boast luxurious hotel room types such as a Presidential Suite and Royale Mandarin Suite. By contrast, some look-alike names may be mistakenly associated with an international hotel chain. For example, the hotel names Ambassador, Landis, Madison, Westgate, and The Sherwood may be linked to identically named hotels found in other cities including Las Vegas, Los Angeles, New York City, London, and Vancouver. However, they are not related to or operated by the same company. Furthermore, high-end hotels seem to prefer the word ‘grand,’ as exemplified by Grand Hotel, Grand Forward, Grand Hyatt, Grand Mayfull, Grand Victoria, and Grand View Resort. Finally, names of hotels associated with esteemed Taiwanese companies are Eslite (a trendy mega-bookstore) and San Want Residences (a maker of popular snacks). These two 5-star establishments are like giant advertising posters for the companies and reflect the financial strength of the parent company.
Foreign borrowings are also prevalent among names of high-end hotels. The incorporation of these terms lends an air of style, opulence, and romance, in addition to evoking an image of an exotic European getaway. Hotel names containing French words are Éclat, Chez Nous, La Clé, La Maison, Le Meridien, Les Suites, Chateau de Chine, and Palais de Chine. Hotel names with Italian or Italian-sounding words include Bellezza, Aqua Bella, Hotel Cozzi, and The Riviera. Relatedly, the King of France Palace offers rooms with beautiful European décor, gold-plated beds. The name Caesar has become synonymous with greatness and thus an inspirational source for the hotel names Caesar Metro and Caesar Park. The Gaia references the name of the Greek mother goddess who presided over the earth.
In addition to Latin-based foreign terms, Japanese borrowings were also found. These include Tokyo International, Hotel Royal-Nikko, The Okura Prestige, and Taipei Radium Kagaya International. Japanese-style management is generally equated with impeccable ambience, elegant simplicity, warm hospitality, and top-of-the-line amenities. Japanese-style accommodations are especially appealing to the local travelers, as the influence of Japanese culture permeates all aspects of Taiwanese life, including architecture, food, fashion, music, and art.
Other relevant keywords
Among a variety of names are relevant keywords that appear multiple times or cluster around certain themes. The word ‘business’ {Hulu, Pacific, Sunrise, Vendome, Lan Ting, Royal Biz (Business Hotel)} speaks to the needs of business travelers. Since the hotels under consideration are located in Taipei and, by extension, East Asia, the compass point inclines to the east, as illustrated by East, East Dragon, Eastern Beauty, Eastern Star, and Shangri-La's Far Eastern Plaza. The theme of royalty is also prevalent among hotel names. The connotation is obvious – patrons will receive the royal treatment in these hotels. This association can be found in names including ‘royal’ (Royal Inn, Royal Palace, Royal Seasons), ‘king’ (King Plaza, King of France Palace), ‘queen’ (Queen, New Queen 2), ‘prince’ (Gloria Prince, Honey Prince), ‘palace’ (HD Palace, Royal Palace, J Palace Residence), Latin root reg- (Regal, Regent, King Regency), and ‘other’ (Emperor, Imperial, VIP). The theme of journey covers ARK, Backpackers, Meander, Roaders, Walker, New May Flower, and Taipei Journey. Finally, hotel names related to the theme of space exude a cool, quirky vibe. Examples include {Cosmos, Moon (Hotel); Space, Galaxy Mini (Inn); Star, Starbox (Hostel); Starbeauty Resort} and all those incorporating the term ‘capsule’. The hotel name FX is reminiscent of the popular sci-fi channel. The following description from Space Inn sums up what such out-of-the-world hotels could offer their patrons:
A spaceship carrying human hope and full of vitality and vigor landed in Hengyang Road in Taipei … Space Inn offers professional hotel management and the most hospitable manner and invites you to tour the ‘space’ with us and enjoy a wonderful trip. (Space Inn, 2014)
Other hotel names include terms that have positive associations or connotations. Perhaps retailers want their patrons to think of their hotels as lovely ‘gardens’ {Golden, Lotus, Miramar, Purple, Rich, Taipei (Garden)}, as gardens convey a sense of tranquility and leisurely refinement. In fact, the traditional Chinese garden of 3000 years ago was a vast garden of emperors and aristocrats that could stretch as long as ten kilometers and hold large banquets for luminaries (Fang, Reference Fang2010). The Morwing Fairytale has a romantically decorated fairy-tale setting, as its name denotes. The name lends a whimsical, magical feel to the hotel. Common words that elicit positive expectations include ‘charming,’ ‘chic,’ ‘cheers,’ ‘dream,’ ‘elegance,’ ‘fun,’ ‘golden,’ ‘grace,’ ‘happiness,’ ‘love,’ ‘paradise,’ ‘smile,’ ‘sparkle,’ ‘warm,’ and ‘welcome’ (e.g. Charming Castle, Cheers Plus, Urban Chic Inn, Dream House, Elegance, Color Fun Inn, Golden Vista, Grace, Say Love, Maple’ Smile, Sparkle, Warm Life).
Discussion
Through naming, hotels provide extrinsic cues that can reveal useful information about them and the kind of service that potential patrons can expect. The collective data also confirm the importance accorded to English as an international language (EIL), which is viewed both as the many varieties of English that are spoken today and as a way of using English. There has been increasing literature on EIL, including its role in teaching (cf. Sharifian, Reference Sharifian2009; Matsuda, Reference Matsuda2012) and in the development of a city's linguistic landscape. With respect to the latter, Schlick (Reference Schlick2003) showed how English plays a salient role in commercial signs seen in European cities. Dimova (Reference Dimova2007) investigated the frequency of English elements in Macedonian commercial naming. Processes identified include lexical creativity, foreign referents, and direct transliteration. Li (Reference Li2015) examined the linguistic landscape of Suzhou, in particular the creative and transgressive English practices in the city. More recently, Weyers (Reference Weyers2016) analyzed shop names in a cross-section of commercial areas in Medellin, Colombia. His study showed that not only is English usage prevalent in Medellin's retail landscape but also its use increases as the socioeconomic status of the target consumers increases.
The present study on the English names of Taipei hotels has shown that names of budget and mid-ranked hotels are more likely to employ various linguistic strategies and creative word play. If retailers are attempting to aim their hotels toward a particular group of travelers (e.g., backpacking youths, business travelers, newlyweds on honeymoon) a name can certainly accomplish this. Unconventional names might attract the attention of the younger patron demographic, for instance. While youth hostels may be limited in services and amenities, these economical accommodations make up for this lack by promoting themselves as centrally located, cool, and quirky lodgings equipped with modern essentials like free WiFi and smart cards. Budget-hotel names with playful forms (e.g. EzBookers, iTrip, Swiio, Nihao@ Taipei) or that are associated with a futuristic or space theme add fun to the traveling experience.
For owners who perhaps have no time or desire to conjure up an English name for their hotels, full transliteration is the most straightforward method (e.g. Gwo Shiuan, Saual Keh, Fen Hwang Ger). The drawback to this, however, is that they are meaningless and, in some instances, difficult for foreign travelers to pronounce. Such names leave no particular impression and are likely to be passed over when one decides on a hotel accommodation. In the case of Saual Keh (‘handsome guest’) and Fen Hwang Ger (fen hwang ‘phoenix’ + ger ‘room’), perhaps hoteliers could revamp their signage by simply adopting the English translation: Handsome Guests Hotel and Phoenix Room Hotel, respectively. Hoteliers could also consider other naming strategies uncovered in this article. For example, instead of the transliterated name Gwo Shiuan (‘national declaration’) perhaps the hotelier could coin an English name such as GoSun. This concatenated name is not only homophonous with the original hotel name in Chinese, but also adheres to the principles of effective brand naming, i.e. the name should be short, distinctive, and easy to pronounce.
By contrast, hotel names with the superlative ‘grand,’ the designation ‘resort,’ brand name associations, and foreign terms appeal to patrons who desire more a higher quality of ambience, amenities, and service. Brand names that enjoy high name recognition (e.g. Sheraton) are likely to do well even in non-English speaking countries. Moreover, one of the rationales behind such naming strategies is the association that people may have with a certain language or culture, e.g. the perception that the French are stylish or that Italians are passionate. Wattenberg (Reference Wattenberg2015) interestingly noted that certain French girls’ names, such as the diminutive Nicolette, are said to ‘add a saucy flavor’ (babynamewizard.com, Reference Wattenberg2015). Whether these perceptions are warranted or not, retailers are not deterred from sprinkling a couple of French or Italian words in a name to attract more well-heeled patrons. A similar phenomenon has been observed in the wording used on shop signs. In fact, Ong, Ghesquière and Serwe (Reference Ong, Ghesquière and Serwe2013) coined the term Vogue French for this function of language. Their study on the naming of local restaurants in Singapore showed that French and English shop names are increasingly in use, with the aim of appealing to a cosmopolitan and sophisticated clientele. If names are any indication, some of these can indeed lend hotels a sense of elegance and grandeur. On the whole, the naming practice for high-end hotels tends to be more on the conservative side. There is perhaps a good reason that the choices for names are narrowly prescribed: there is an image to uphold – one of class, prestige, and sophistication (e.g. Ambassador, Grand Victoria). Conversely, a quirky, funny-looking, or unorthodox name for a high-end hotel simply screams impropriety. On surname-sounding hotel names like Fullerton, Landis, Madison, and Sherwood, it is as if curious patrons, having researched the genealogy of these names, may have traced the name-bearer's relationship (however remote) to British nobility or old money in the vein of Hilton, Wellington, and Astor.
Finally, the collective data uncover an assortment of euphemistic terms that invoke feelings of positive expectations. Included in a hotel name, these terms freely express the immediate hopes and desires of travelers looking for a wonderful experience. Herein appears to be a conscious or subconscious application of the concept of semantic field. Lehrer (Reference Lehrer and Fisiak1985) defined semantic field as ‘a set of lexemes that cover a certain conceptual domain and bear certain specifiable relations to one another’ (Lehrer Reference Lehrer and Fisiak1985: 283). It is a set of words (or lexemes) related in meaning and is used to impress a certain image in people's minds. For example, the meanings of the words ‘king,’ ‘queen,’ and ‘prince’ are linked to the theme of royalty and elicit an image of a lavish and opulent lifestyle. The lexicalized sense of vacation is ‘an extended period of recreation, especially one spent away from home or in traveling’ (lexico.com, 2019). Thus, if retailers want to create a vacation atmosphere, they can use a number of words that belong to the semantic subfield of JOY (‘cheer,’ ‘delight,’ ‘happiness’), COMFORT (‘garden,’ ‘homey,’ ‘relax’), and PLEASANTNESS (‘beauty,’ ‘charming,’ ‘pretty’).
Conclusion
In essence, hotel names help potential patrons get an idea of what level of services they might receive and, in some instances, personalize the traveling experience. Whatever strategy is adopted, hotel names serve as a valuable resource for travelers and tourists; they can help identify the location of the facility, suggest the types of accommodations available, attract a certain group or demographic, and elicit positive associations or maintain a perception of quality. In this way, the act of hotel naming is an act of social communication, one between the name-giver of the establishment and potential patrons with specific travel goals.
LINDSEY N.H. CHEN is Associate Professor of General Linguistics at the National Taiwan Normal University. Her areas of interest are semantics and onomastics. She has examined and written about various kinds of proper names, including English given names, institution names, and product names. Email: chenlindsey@yahoo.com
