Introduction
The prehistory of the semiarid north of Chile is characterized by three primary archaeological periods: the Archaic Period, the Ceramic Period, and the Late Period. The Ceramic Period is further divided into an Early Ceramic (EC) period, a Middle Ceramic (MC) period, and a Late Intermediate Ceramic (LIC) period. The Las Ánimas Cultural Complex (800–1200 AD) is a characteristic feature of the MC, while the Chilean Diaguita Culture (900–1450 AD) is a hallmark of the LIC. The Late Period is associated with the incorporation of Diaguita communities into the Inca Empire by the middle of the 15th century, until they were conquered by the Spaniards approximately a hundred years later (ca. 1540 AD) (Cantarutti Reference Cantarutti2000; Falabella et al. Reference Falabella, Uribe, Sanhueza, Aldunate and Hidalgo2016; Troncoso et al. Reference Troncoso, Cantarutti, González, Falabella, Uribe, Sanhueza, Aldunate and Hidalgo2016).
It has been traditionally proposed that the Las Ánimas Cultural Complex (LACC) and the Chilean Diaguita Culture (CDC) as two different cultural entities, mainly on the basis of distinctions in their mortuary practices and differentiated polychrome ceramic types. Mortuary contexts of the LACC have been defined by the arrangement of humans with articulated camelids and/or the presence of ceramic offerings, known as Las Ánimas I, II, and III. In contrast, the CDC burials are distinguished by the absence of articulated camelids and the presence of specific ceramic types, known as Diaguita I or Transición; Diaguita II or Clásico; and Diaguita III or Diaguita-Inca (González Reference González2017). Further details can be found in Supplemental Appendix 1. The current predominant view suggests that the CDC emerged from the LACC (Ampuero Reference Ampuero1989). Nevertheless, few absolute datings had been obtained to support such position (Ampuero Reference Ampuero1972–1973; Castillo Reference Castillo1984; Larach Reference Larach2017; Alfonso-Durruty et al. Reference Alfonso-Durruty, Troncoso, Larach, Becker and Misarti2017) (see Supplemental Appendix 1).
To date, no isotopic analysis has been conducted to study the mobility of LACC or CDC populations inhabited the Coquimbo Bay and La Serena. The data available include only two δ18O values (–5.0 and –6.4) obtained in human samples from two individuals from the Plaza de Coquimbo site (Larach Reference Larach2017; see Supplemental Appendix 1), which indicates they drank coastal waters. The only study that has examined differences in diet of the groups inhabiting the area of study from carbon and nitrogen isotopic analysis (Alfonso-Durruty et al. Reference Alfonso-Durruty, Troncoso, Larach, Becker and Misarti2017) did not find statistically significant differences between the Middle Ceramic (LACC) and the Late Intermediate Ceramic (CDC) periods. The authors of the study posited that the differences were more evident between coastal and inland individuals, irrespective of the archaeological period, thereby suggesting that the variability in diet resulted from the geographic location of these groups. Consequently, the approach to studying potential differences is reliant upon the analysis of cemeteries with LACC and CDC mortuary contexts. The site El Olivar fulfils this requirement. The El Olivar site is located at 29°53′03″S, 71°15′15″W, near the mouth of the Elqui River on the north side of the city of La Serena (see Figure 1). Between 2015 and 2017, archaeological excavations in an area of 332 m2 led to the recovery of 212 primary burials and 39 secondary burials. Of the primary burials, 171 were of single human individuals, while 41 were of humans arranged together with camelids (see Figure 2) (Cantarutti and González Reference Cantarutti and González2021; González Reference González2017). Further details about the El Olivar site can be found in Supplemental Appendix 1.
Location of El Olivar site. The hatched box indicates the area excavated between years 2015 and 2017.
Two Ánimas burials of humans placed together with camelids. Above: Individual 4, associated with a single camelid. In situ were found three gold earings: two next to her left side, and one next to her right side. Below: Individual 166, associated with two camelids. In situ was found a gold collar around his neck.
The present contribution aims to shed light on the chronology of the LACC and the CDC in the area under study, and to assess possible differences in their diet and mobility. To this end, it presents and discusses the radiocarbon dates and the results of carbon, nitrogen and oxygen isotopic analysis of Ánimas and Diaguita mortuary contexts recovered from El Olivar.
Materials and methods
The analyses were conducted in two distinct laboratories. For full details about the sampling and methods used in each laboratory, please refer to Supplemental Appendix 2. The enamel and bone samples were processed at the Cornell University Stable Isotope Laboratory (COIL) in order to assess human diet and mobility. Enamel samples were analyzed to provide insights into the individuals’ childhoods (from ages 5 to 10 years), while the bone samples were processed to obtain data about their last 10 years of life. The δ13C and δ18O values from enamel apatite were analyzed for 58 individuals. Bone collagen and bone apatite from 60 individuals were subjected to analysis of δ13C and δ15N, and δ13C and δ18O respectively. The human δ18O values were converted into drinking water values (δ18Odw) using the conversion equations indicated by Coplen (Reference Coplen1988), Daux et al. (Reference Daux, Lécuyer, Héran, Amiot, Simon, Fourel, Martineau, Lynnerup, Reychler and Escarguel2008), and Chenery et al. (Reference Chenery, Pashley, Lamb, Sloane and Evans2012), which were then compared with the δ18OSMOW values of waters sources of the area (Squeo et al. Reference Squeo, Aravena, Aguirre, Pollastri, Jorquera and Ehleringer2006; Strauch et al. Reference Strauch, Oyarzún, Fiebig-Wittmaack, González and Weise2006) (see Supplemental Appendix 2).
A total of 62 bone samples were processed at the Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit (ORAU) to determine the chronology of the mortuary contexts. The samples included 20 camelid samples, and 42 human samples. The rationale for sampling was to date one or the other, not pairs of camelid-human. At ORAU, the bone samples from camelids and humans were analyzed for radiocarbon, δ13C and δ15N analysis. The radiocarbon dates of the camelid samples were calibrated with the current atmospheric curve for the Southern Hemisphere (SHCal20; Hogg et al. Reference Hogg, Heaton, Hua, Palmer, Turney, Southon, Bayliss, Blackwell, Boswijk, Bronk Ramsey, Petchey, Reimer, Reimer and Wacker2020), using OxCal 4.4.4 (Bronk Ramsey Reference Bronk Ramsey2009; https://c14.arch.ox.ac.uk/oxcal.html). The human stable isotope values obtained at ORAU were utilized to calculate the percentage of marine diet for each individual using MixSIAR (Stock and Semmens Reference Stock and Semmens2016; Stock et al. Reference Stock, Jackson, Ward, Parnell, Phillips and Semmens2018) (see Supplemental Appendix 2). Subsequently, calibrations were performed using OxCal 4.4.4 with a mixed curve (SHCal20/Marine20, Heaton et al. Reference Heaton, Köhler, Butzin, Bard, Reimer, Austin, Bronk Ramsey, Grootes, Hughen, Kromer, Reimer, Adkins, Burke, Cook, Olsen and Skinner2020), incorporating the percentages of marine diet with a 10% margin of error on these values. The local reservoir value (∆R) utilized was –55 ± 25 14C yr in accordance with the Marine20 curve (http://calib.org/marine/ accessed on 16 September 2024). This value was calculated from a sample of Mesodesma donacium collected in 1837 at the Coquimbo bay, located 14 km south from El Olivar site (Carré et al. Reference Carré, Jackson, Maldonado, Chase and Sachs2016). No Spaniard evidence was found in the mortuary contexts of El Olivar. Consequently, to establish an ante quem for the modeling of the radiocarbon results, the date of 1536 AD was utilized, marking the arrival of the first Spanish expedition (of Diego de Almagro) to the region (Cantarutti Reference Cantarutti2000). The codes employed in OxCal 4.4.4 software are presented in Supplemental Appendix 2.
From the mortuary data, 25 individuals presenting diagnostic features were selected for further analyses. A total of 10 individuals were recovered from burials presenting articulated camelids and/or ceramic types Las Ánimas I, II, and III, and were therefore classified as Ánimas individuals (LACC). Conversely, 15 individuals recovered from burials with absence of articulated camelids, but presenting ceramic types Diaguita I or Transición, Diaguita II or Clásico, and Diaguita III or Diaguita-Inca, were classified as Diaguita individuals (CDC). The complete list of the 25 individuals selected for further analyses is presented in Supplemental Appendix 3.
Results
Human diet
The data set presented in Supplemental Appendix 3 comprises the C/N ratios and values of δ13C and δ15N derived from bone collagen, δ13C from enamel apatite, and δ13C from bone apatite obtained at the COIL.
The δ13Ccol values in the Ánimas individuals (n=10) show a range from –21.9‰ to –12.8‰, while the δ13Ccol values in the Diaguita samples (n=15) show a range from –16‰ to –11.2‰ (Figure 3). The majority of individuals from both groups exhibited high δ13Ccol values, ranging from –16‰ to –11‰, indicating the consumption of C4 plants, such as maize. It is noteworthy that the majority of individuals with values above –13‰ are from the Diaguita group. A smaller group of individuals (n=6) exhibited more negative δ13Ccol values (–21‰ to –19‰), indicative of a terrestrial diet based on C3 plants (e.g. quinoa, beans, squash, algarrobo). Of the six individuals in this group, four were Ánimas (individuals 4, 9, 127, and 166).
Plots for stable isotope of human bone samples (n=39) from El Olivar. (a) δ13C and δ15N values; (b) δ13Cap and δ18Oap values. The “A” in the plots represents Ánimas (LACC) individuals. The “D” in the plots represents Diaguita (CDC) individuals. Individuals who could not be classified are represented by black dots.
The δ15N values in the Ánimas individuals (n=10) ranged from 9.2‰ to 15.3‰, while the δ15N values in the Diaguita samples (n=15) ranged from 11.8‰ to 16.2‰ (see Figure 3). These results reveal the existence of a main group with values above 12‰, indicating consumption of marine resources. Note that the majority of the individuals with δ15N values above 14‰ are Diaguita. Conversely, a small group of individuals (n=6) show δ15N values below 12‰ (individuals 4, 9, 82, 127, 163, and 166), suggesting their diet consisted of terrestrial proteins (e.g. rodents, camelids). Of these six individuals, four belonged to the Animas group (individuals 4, 9, 127, and 166).
The δ13Cap values in the Ánimas individuals (n=10) show a range from –8.1‰ to –4.3‰, while the δ13Cap values in the Diaguita individuals (n=15) show a range from –9.1‰ to –6.1‰ (see Figure 3). These findings suggest that both Ánimas and Diaguita individuals incorporated C4 plants into their diet.
Human mobility
The δ18O values obtained from enamel and bone apatite at the COIL are presented in Supplemental Appendix 3. The δ18O values exhibited by the Ánimas individuals (n=10) show a range from –11‰ to –7.3‰, while the δ18O values of the Diaguita individuals (n=15) show a range from –10.9‰ to –7.6‰ (see Figure 3). Upon conversion to drinking water values (δ18Odw), the range of human δ18O values (between –11‰ and –7.3‰) yielded a range between –11.5‰ and –17.3‰ (see Supplemental Appendix 2). This range is consistent with the δ18OSMOW values of coastal groundwater and groundwater and superficial waters from the inland valley of the Elqui river.
Camelid radiocarbon dates
Supplemental Appendix 3 presents the C/N ratios, δ13C and δ15N values, and radiocarbon dates obtained from the 20 camelid samples sent to the ORAU, along with the calibrations made with the SHCal20 curve. Figure 4 illustrates the span of the camelid calibrated dates (1155–1455 AD). The group of 16 dates that fall between 1155 and 1414 AD are attributed to Ánimas on the basis that they were obtained from mortuary contexts containing complete and articulated camelids. The remaining four dates obtained from camelid phalanges and falling between 1288 and 1455 AD are attributed to Diaguita based on the presence of Diaguita ceramic types in the burials.
Radiocarbon calibrated dates of El Olivar. Camelid dates calibrated using SHCal20. Human dates from Secondary and Primary Burials were modeled using 1536 AD as ante quem. The “A” in the plots represents Ánimas (LACC) individuals. The “D” in the plots represents Diaguita (CDC) individuals.
Human radiocarbon dates
The C/N ratios, δ13C and δ15N values, and radiocarbon dates from the 42 human samples sent to the ORAU are presented in Supplemental Appendix 3. The Supplemental Appendix presents the percentage of marine diet for each individual, the calibrations made with a mixed curve (SHCal20/Marine20) incorporating the percentage of marine diet and the local reservoir correction (∆R = –55 ± 25 14C yr), and the radiocarbon dates modeled using the date 1536 AD, as ante quem. As ilustrates in Figure 4, the modeled human radiocarbon dates span from 1180 to 1538 AD. Five individuals from primary burials (Ind 3, 149, 84, 194, and 187) exhibited earlier dates, starting at the 1180 AD. Of these, only one individual (149) presented diagnostic features that assigned him to the Diaguita group. The remaining four individuals lacked both the diagnostic features associated with Ánimas and those indicative of the Diaguita group. All the primary burials with dates between 1400 and 1538 AD are Diaguitas, with the exception of individuals 32 (1398–1538 AD) and 183 (1397–1530 AD). These two individuals (32 and 183) were assigned to Ánimas due to the presence of Ánimas ceramic types in their burials.
Discussion
Chronology
The chronological span of the LACC is currently understood to range from 800 to 1200 AD (Castillo Reference Castillo1989; Troncoso et al. Reference Troncoso, Cantarutti, González, Falabella, Uribe, Sanhueza, Aldunate and Hidalgo2016). Prior to the 1990s, two radiocarbon dates were reported for the area under study: one from the Compañía de Teléfonos site (900 ± 95 BP, charcoal) and the other from the Plaza de Coquimbo site (740 ± 60 BP, wood). Utilizing the SHCal20 curve, these dates can be calibrated in 993–1378 AD and 1224–1395 AD, respectively (see Supplemental Appendix 1). The reliability of the 993–1395 AD range is due to the fact that these samples could not be affected by the marine reservoir effect (MRE). The problem is to regard about their precision: uncertainties of ±95 and ±60, respectively.
In a recent study, Larach (Reference Larach2017) obtained radiocarbon dates from two camelid samples and three human samples from the Plaza de Coquimbo site, which, according to the available contextual information, belong to the LACC. Larach (Reference Larach2017) analyzed camelid or human samples (one or the other, not pairs of human-camelid from the same mortuary context). Utilizing the SHCal20 curve, the radiocarbon dates of the camelids from Plaza de Coquimbo (1040 ± 20 BP and 890 ± 25 BP) can be calibrated as 991–1145 AD and 1155–1267 AD, respectively. The human radiocarbon dates of Plaza de Coquimbo (1050 ± 20 BP, 1020 ± 25 BP, and 910 ± 25 BP) result in calibrations of 991–1137 AD, 1020–1152 AD, and 1052–1226 AD, respectively, using the SHCal20 curve. Larach (Reference Larach2017) also reported six radiocarbon dates obtained from human samples from the Plaza de Armas de La Serena site, which, according to the available contextual information belong to the LACC. The earlier date was 1000 ± 20 BP, while the later date was 670 ± 20 BP. The calibration using the SHCal20 curve yielded a span between 1027 and 1396 AD. The individual dated 670 ± 20 BP is identified as Diaguita by Alfonso-Durruty et al. (Reference Alfonso-Durruty, Troncoso, Larach, Becker and Misarti2017), however the criteria applied for this classification are not stated in the article.
In summary, with regard to the chronological span of the LACC, calibrations of the radiocarbon dates reported prior to the 1990s result in a very amplitude calendaric range, which is of limited utility as a chronological marker. The calibrated human dates from Plaza de Coquimbo span from 991 to 1226 AD, while the calibrated human dates from Plaza de Armas de La Serena span from 1027 to 1396 AD. These ranges have to be considered with caution, as they are likely to be affected by MRE. Conversely, the calibrated dates of camelids from Plaza de Coquimbo spanning from 991 to 1267 AD, can be considered as reliable (probably not affected by MRE).
The calibrated dates obtained on camelid samples from El Olivar are reliable. The calibrated dates of 16 Ánimas individuals from El Olivar accompanied by complete and articulated camelids span from 1156 to 1414 AD. The dates of two additional Ánimas individuals (32 and 183), which mortuary contexts do not include camelids but Ánimas ceramic types, were calibrated between 1397 and 1538 AD. The calibrations of dates of these two Ánimas individuals were obtained from human samples affected by marine reservoir effect (MRE) (see below). The range of calibrated dates of El Olivar-Ánimas individuals, between 1156 and 1538 AD, suggest they were later than previously thought.
The temporal range currently considered by the CDC (including the Diaguita-Inca period) spans from 900 to 1536 AD (Castillo Reference Castillo1989; Troncoso et al. Reference Troncoso, Cantarutti, González, Falabella, Uribe, Sanhueza, Aldunate and Hidalgo2016). One individual from the Plaza de Armas de La Serena site (670 ± 20 BP, human sample, UGAMS 9376) was classified as Diaguita by Alfonso-Durruty et al. (Reference Alfonso-Durruty, Troncoso, Larach, Becker and Misarti2017). Utilizing the SHCal20 curve, this date can be calibrated as 1297–1396 AD. However, when the stable isotopic values reported (δ13Ccol= –12.47 and δ15N=10.8) are taken into account, and the calibration is made with a mixed curve (SHCal20/Marine20) incorporating the percentage of marine diet and the local reservoir correction, the radiocarbon date modeled using the date 1536 AD, as ante quem, results in a range between AD 1310–1506. Alfonso-Durruty et al. (Reference Alfonso-Durruty, Troncoso, Larach, Becker and Misarti2017) report radiocarbon dates obtained from one individual from the Puerto Aldea site (800 ± 20 BP) and one individual from the Los Pozos site (780 ± 20 BP), both located approximately 70 km south of the Plaza de Armas de La Serena site. The authors classified these two individuals as Diaguita, yet the article does not provide the criteria used for that classification. The calibration of these dates using the SHCal curve spans between 1226 and 1297 AD, which must be considered with caution because they could be probably affected by MRE.
The calibrated range of El Olivar individuals with diagnostic features of the CDC spans between 1288 and 1538 AD. The dates falling between 1288 and 1455 AD of four individuals associated with Diaguita ceramic types (25, 63, 135, and 197) obtained from camelid phalanges are reliable (not affected by MRE), indicating that CDC evidence for the area of study (Coquimbo Bay and La Serena) commenced at least in the 1300 AD.
The majority of the El Olivar-Diaguitas dates were obtained from human samples, and it should be noted that their calibrations considered the percentage of marine diet. It has been demonstrated that high marine protein consumption tends to over-represent the contribution of marine resources to total dietary protein in bulk collagen analysis (Hedges Reference Hedges2004). This implies the possibility that we calculate higher percentages of marine diet, which could affect the calibrations (i.e. resulting in younger dates). To refine the percentage of marine diet we suggest conducting Compound-Specific Amino Acid Isotope Analysis (Webb et al. Reference Webb, Honch, Dunn, Linderholm, Eriksson, Lidén and Evershed2018). The local reservoir correction (∆R) that we used was calculated from a sample of Mesodesma donacium collected in 1837, and it is possible that the local reservoir at the time of our interest (800–1540 AD) was different. In order to explore and correct the local MRE, it is suggested that pair datings of human and camelid samples from El Olivar be conducted.
Diet
Alfonso-Durruty et al. (Reference Alfonso-Durruty, Troncoso, Larach, Becker and Misarti2017) concluded that diet differences between LACC and CDC were more evident between coastal and inland individuals, regardless of the archaeological period. The present study therefore sought to assess differences in diet between Ánimas and Diaguita individuals from the same site.
The results obtained show that the range of both δ13Ccol and δ15N values exhibited by individuals from both groups at El Olivar are comparable (see Figure 3). However, the majority of the higher δ13Ccol values (above –13‰) were exhibited by six Diaguita individuals, while the lower δ13Ccol values (below –19‰) were observed in four Ánimas individuals (127, 4, 166, and 9). Regarding the δ15N values, the majority of the higher values (above 14‰) were observed in the Diaguita individuals, while the lower values (below 12‰) were observed in the Ánimas individuals. The calibrated dates of three of the four Ánimas individuals (4, 9, and 166) with lower δ13Ccol and δ15N values span between 1156 and 1280 AD, representing the early occupation of the site (Figure 2 shows the mortuary contexts of individuals 4 and 166).
The available δ13Ccol and δ15N values of LACC individuals inhabiting the coast of the area of study include two individuals from the Plaza de Coquimbo site (n=2), and six from the Plaza de Armas de La Serena site (n=6) (Larach Reference Larach2017) (see Supplemental Appendix 1). The average of the δ13Ccol values in the two individuals from Plaza de Coquimbo is –13.6‰, with a range from –15.4‰ to –11.7‰. Their δ15N values average at 19.3‰, with a range from 19‰ to 19.6‰, while their δ13Cap values average –6.8‰, with a range from –7.9‰ to –5.6‰. Therefore, carbon isotopic values of Plaza de Coquimbo and El Olivar are found to be similar, suggesting individuals from both sites eat similar plants. Nitrogen values from Plaza de Coquimbo are higher suggesting individuals from Plaza de Coquimbo probably consumed more marine resources than individuals from El Olivar.
The average of the δ13Ccol values in the six samples from the Plaza de Armas de La Serena site is –9.4‰, with a range from –12.5‰ to –7.6‰. Their δ15N values average is 11.7‰, with a range from 8.6‰ to 14‰, while their δ13Cap values average –5.6‰, with a range from –7.9‰ to –3.5‰. Therefore, the nitrogen isotope values of the Plaza de Armas de La Serena and El Olivar are similar, suggesting that individuals from both sites consumed similar marine resources. Carbon values from Plaza de Armas de La Serena are higher, suggesting individuals from Plaza de Armas de La Serena consumer greater quantities of C4 plants than individuals from El Olivar.
The available δ13Ccol and δ15N values of CDC individuals inhabiting the coast of the area of study include three from the site Puerto Aldea site (PA), and one from the Los Pozos site (LP), both of which are located approximately 70 km south of the Plaza de Armas de La Serena site (Alfonso-Durruty et al. Reference Alfonso-Durruty, Troncoso, Larach, Becker and Misarti2017). For the purpose of comparison, the values of these four individuals are considered as a whole (PA-LP). The average of the δ13Ccol values of PA-LP individuals is –11.4‰, with a range from –15.6‰ to –9.7‰. Their δ15N values average 17.6‰, with a range from 15.8‰ to 19.4‰, while their δ13Cap values average is –5.9‰, with a range from –12.1‰ to –0.3‰. Therefore, the carbon and nitrogen values of PA-LP and El Olivar individuals are different. The carbon values of PA-LP individuals are higher, suggesting that they eat more C4 plants than individuals from El Olivar. Nitrogen values of PA-LP are higher, suggesting that they consumed more marine resources than individuals from El Olivar.
In summary, the diet of individuals inhabiting the coast of the area under study during the chronology analyzed (ca. 1000–1536 AD) show inter-site differences. According to their isotopic values, individuals from Plaza de Coquimbo and PA-LP consumed C3 and C4 plants and more marine resources, in contrast to individuals from Armas de La Serena, who consumed minimal marine resources and relied more heavily on C4 plants. With respect to the consumption of C3 and C4 plants, and marine resources, the majority of El Olivar individuals, both Ánimas and Diaguita, can be situated at an intermediate position.
The carbon and nitrogen values also show intra site variability, which necessitates the analysis of contextual data in order to refine criteria for cultural classifications. Finally, it is important to note that the isotopic data available for six individuals from the Plaza de Armas de La Serena site represents 42.9% of the individuals recovered (6/14 individuals) (Larach Reference Larach2017). Conversely, the isotopic data available for the two individuals from the Plaza de Coquimbo site represents a mere 6.7% of the individuals recovered (2/30 individuals) (Castillo Reference Castillo1984).
Mobility
The range of δ18O values observed in both Ánimas and Diaguita individuals from El Olivar are comparable (see Figure 3). The majority of El Olivar individuals analyzed exhibited a concentrated range of δ18Oap values, ranging from –11‰ to –7.3‰, suggesting that the majority of them consumed water from similar sources. In view of the available data on local water sources, it seems plausible to suggest that these individuals were engaged in coastal-to-inland mobility.
To date, the only human δ18O values available for the area of study are reported by Larach (Reference Larach2017). These values (–5.0 and –6.4), obtained from two individuals from the Plaza de Coquimbo site (see Supplemental Appendix 1), indicate that these individuals consumed coastal waters, and suggest that they were engaged in a reduced mobility centred on the coast.
While it is conceivable to discern a distinction between El Olivar (coastal-to-inland mobility) and the individuals from Plaza de Coquimbo (reduced mobility near to the coast), it is important to note that the two individuals from Plaza de Coquimbo with data available (Sepultura 10 and Sepultura 15) only represent 6.7% of the total of individuals recovered from the site. Given that human δ18Oap values can be representative of individuals from coastal, valley, and mountainous regions, further research employing strontium isotope analysis is recommended (Gómez and Pacheco Reference Gómez and Pacheco2017).
Conclusions
This study provides relevant background for the understanding of the pre-Hispanic societies that inhabited the semiarid north of Chile, specifically with respect to the chronological framework of the LACC (Ánimas) and CDC (Diaguita) groups, and their cultural relationships.
The Ánimas dates at the El Olivar site are later than previously thought (800–1200 AD), as they are mostly located between 1150 and 1400 AD. The Diaguita dates at the El Olivar site, from 1288 to 1536, fall in the chronological range currently accepted (900–1536 AD). However, the Diaguita evidence at El Olivar begins around the 1300 AD, indicating a minimum of 100 years during which Ánimas and Diaguita individuals coexisted and buried their dead in the same funerary space. This temporal overlap indicates also that the emergence of the Chilean Diaguita Culture (CDC) did not result in the extinction of the Las Ánimas Cultural Complex (LACC). On the contrary, the available data from El Olivar indicates continuities between the LACC and the CDC in the Coquimbo Bay area, having the former cultural roots of the latter (Cantarutti and González Reference Cantarutti and González2021).
According to Cantarutti and González (Reference Cantarutti and González2021, 761) the ergology present in both the habitational and funerary areas at El Olivar exhibits a stylistic-technological identity (sensu Dietler and Herbich Reference Dietler, Herbich and Stark1998) between Ánimas and Diaguitas, in terms of lithic, bone and metal industries, which reinforces the idea that the occupations can be attributed to the same cultural tradition. Similarities were also observed at the dietary level. The majority of individuals from El Olivar, both Ánimas and Diaguita, show diets combining C3 and C4 plants, and marine resources. The exceptions are four Ánimas individuals, with terrestrial and C3 plant-based diets, whose dates place them at the beginning of the occupation of the site. Some of the materials found in the graves of these individuals include exceptional artifacts, such as gold, copper and tin alloy artifacts, as well as instruments intended for the inhalation of psychoactive powders. For now, we ponder these individuals as representing the arrival of a population of llama herders from across the Andes Mountains. In order to better understand the meaning and implications of the arrival, temporal coexistence and spatial cohabitation of funerary and habitation areas between Ánimas and Diaguitas groups, it is appropriate to address biological aspects. For this reason, genetic studies are underway, whose data will be relevant for a better understanding of the nature of this cultural interrelationship.
The presence of human burials accompanied by articulated camelids or associated with Ánimas polychrome ceramic types is not recorded after the arrival of the Inca at the El Olivar site (ca. 1450 AD). It is therefore necessary to evaluate the role played by the incorporation of the El Olivar site into the Tawantinsuyu sphere of influence in the disappearance of the more distinctive Ánimas cultural manifestations.
Supplementary material
To view supplementary material for this article, please visit https://doi.org/10.1017/RDC.2025.22
Acknowledgments
This research adhered to all the requirements of the Consejo de Monumentos Nacionales (CMN) of Chile regarding the extraction of samples from archaeological human and animal remains, and the protocols for their export. The authors thank the Ministerio de las Culturas, las Artes y el Patrimonio de Chile for the authorization to export the samples analyzed (Decreto N° 13, exento, dated June 4, 2019; Decreto N° 11, exento, dated March 28, 2022). In March 2024, all the bioanthropological and archaeological materials recovered from the El Olivar site were duly entered into the Museo Arqueológico de La Serena, located approximately 2 km from the site.
We would like to express our special appreciation to the Indigenous Association “Elke”, and the extant Diaguitas communities inhabiting semiarid North of Chile “Ana Chacana”, “Emma Piñones”, “Susurro del Atardecer”, and “Taucan”, for their interest and support to the research project which results are here presented. Since 2017 we have been putting our efforts toward disseminating our results and interpretations for various audiences, academic, general public, and Diaguitas communities. From them, especially the latter, we have received endorsement and active encouragement to further research their ancestors, to contribute and promote the recognition of their history. To them we express our sincere gratitude. Finally, we appreciate the considerations, remarks, and comments from the reviewers from which we worked to improve our collaboration.
