Church history seems to store its forgotten sources until a willing scholar delves into the task of study or translation into a modern language. The writings of medieval Theodulf and Smaragdus are among the many seemingly elapsed sources, figures who themselves tend not to feature prominently in history. Francis Gumerlock has restored some of their works in this book. These are accompanied by an anonymous Preface to the Apocalypse and the chapter headings of the Book of Apocalypse. Collectively they represent memory and insight into the Book of Revelation during the early ninth-century Carolingian Renaissance with its monumental church and educational reforms.

Francis X. Gumerlock's translations of Latin medieval texts are familiar to readers. They include Tyconius’ The exposition of the apocalypse, Early Latin commentaries on the apocalypse, The seven seals of the apocalypse and Gottschalk and a medieval predestination controversy. Besides delivering first-time English translations of these Carolingian expositions, he provides introductory biographies of the writers and the contribution, reception, sources and exegetical quality of their commentaries.

In the early ninth century Charlemagne declared capitularies, or individuals to institute reforms of literacy in Carolingian life for trade and court service towards a greater unity across the empire. Among those called to court were Theodulf and Smaragdus, whose efforts advanced both the educational and theological fronts of the Church: ‘Both engaged in a type of thoughtful exegesis that resourced the past to create contemporary texts which were desired by, and helpful to, their Carolingian audiences’ (p. 19). Gumerlock traces their strains of reception from Victorinus, Jerome and Tyconius, as well as from the Hiberno-Latin glosses of the Apocalypse of Irish clerics working on the continent.

Theodulf had wide influence in the court of Charlemagne, serving as diplomat to southern Gaul, receiving the pallium from Pope Leo iii, witnessing Charlemagne's coronation and serving as bishop of Orleans. There he instituted clerical reforms and directed priests to educate children. His scholarly editions of the Bible have a critical element, while his theological treatises paid attention to the filioque and iconoclastic controversy. Accused of treason by Louis the Pious, his life ended in exile, making his Revelation commentary easily forgotten. Yet, his literary ability is thought to have rivalled that of Alcuin. In 810, from the scriptorium of the monastery near Orleans, comes Theodulf's Exposition on the Apocalypse of John, designed to guide monks in the study of the Scripture. The work ‘contains short allegorical comments on words and phrases of the biblical text, often related to Christology, ecclesiology and Christian morality’ (p. 7). Surprisingly, his exegesis lacks the accusations again Islam common to medieval exegetes. For example, in the 850s Eulogius saw Mohammed as a forerunner of the AntiChrist and the Muslim conquests as signs of the end, while Alvarius of Cordova in 854 saw Mohammed as the Little Horn of Daniel vii. Theodulf's commentary addresses the most popular events on the timeline of eschatology, unlike Smaragdus, and they share no anticipation of an imminent end of the world. Instead, these events contain a pastoral element for Theodulf. The voice from heaven (4:1) alerts readers to how ‘the church invites unbelievers to Christ, to baptism … just as the sound of a trumpet, so is that of preachers when those listening are invited to faith’ (p. 39).

Smaragdus served as principal of the monastery school near Verdun. He wrote treatises in response to the filioque controversy, with advice on morality and spirituality to Louis the Pious, and in commentary on The Rule of St. Benedict. In 812 he provided Apocalypse sermon material for use by preachers preparing homilies for the liturgies on the Feasts of Michael the Archangel, the Eighth Sunday after Pentecost, and Holy Innocents. They concern Christology and ecclesiology as much as eschatology itself. His attention centres clearly on understanding the Scripture: ‘He [Christ] did not want us, whom he made eager to more deeply scrutinize the mysteries by putting the words in signs, to remain content with the superficiality of the letter’ (p. 84). His interest in numbers is notable, as in the case of the twenty-four elders: ‘Twenty signifies the Decalogue doubled, and four signifies the four Gospels’ (p. 87).

The two anonymous works enhance Gumerlock's resourcing of the era. The eighth-century Preface to the Apocalypse is as notable for its authorship and biography as for its theology, calling the author the Apostle and attributing his exile to Domitian. The preface compares John to Moses in meekness and the Apocalypse to the giving of the Law in a mysterious love. The ninth-century Headings show an outline of forty-eight sections to the Apocalypse, different from the numbering of commentators like Primasius and Bede. Gumerlock recognises that the numbering might reflect the medieval affinity for numerical significance. Perhaps this displays the twenty-four elders times the number of the two testaments, ‘Most likely to portray that the Apocalypse was the completion of the revelation of God for the entire people of God’ (p. 17).

This work makes these sources, their reception and their authors available to teachers and students of medieval history and historical biblical exegesis. They typify the larger tradition of medieval commentaries on Scripture from an era that had a particular interest in the Apocalypse for understanding the world, disease, pestilence and suffering, while gaining hope for the Church amid these crises. These Carolingians ‘intended to satisfy Carolingian intellectual preoccupations, spiritually edify their hearers and readers, and equip their recipients with tools that would be helpful in their ministerial duties’ (pp. 19–20). With endnotes half of the total pages of the introduction, Gumerlock has provided fresh translations, historical analysis and scholarship from a sometimes isolated era, outlining the figures and their exegesis, eschatology, sources and significance. He has delved into the task of uncovering these Revelation commentaries, brought out their insights from the texts, and illumined our understanding of ninth-century Carolingian exegesis.