This study investigates the stability and instability of the language control network in bilinguals using longitudinal resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI) data. We compared the language control network of Chinese university students majoring in English with those not, using three other functional networks as controls. Results indicate that the English major group exhibits reduced stability and increased instability in the language control network compared with the non-English major group. This suggests that second language (L2) learning experience may induce adaptive neural changes. Moreover, the coexistence of stability and instability in the language control network appears less modular in the English major group, implying a more integrated response to language experience. Notably, these results were not observed in the control networks. Overall, these findings enhance the understanding of bilingual language control and the impact of L2 learning on neural plasticity.

This longitudinal study examined the cognitive development of Spanish children from monolingual backgrounds attending schools with varying levels of English exposure (13%–83%) to assess whether higher L2 exposure results in advantages over time. 229 children (ages 6–7) completed background (nonverbal reasoning (NVR), working memory (WM), L1 vocabulary, L2 vocabulary) and experimental tests measuring attentional/executive functions (selective attention, divided attention, switching, inhibition) at the beginning and end of year 1 of primary education. Generalized linear mixed-effects models, accounting for factors such as family educational level, onset of L2 exposure and language exposure outside of school, indicated that children’s cognitive skills benefit from (high) L2 exposure at school, with greater L2 exposure being linked to more enhanced attentional/executive skills as well as to a larger L2 vocabulary. These findings support the positive effects of immersion programs, suggesting that L2 exposure in school settings alone can contribute to more developed attentional/executive skills.

A central question in foreign language (LX) learning is how vocabulary acquisition is affected by using image versus orthographic referents. According to the picture superiority effect (PSE) and bilingual/dual coding theory (b/DCT), images should lead to better novel word encoding and retrieval. We tested this prediction using behavioral and event-related potential (ERP) measures. Thirty Polish native speakers learned 40 LX (artificial language) words using either image or L1/orthographic referents. After 24 hours, participants were tested using a translational priming paradigm in congruent and incongruent training-testing modalities. Behavioral results showed higher accuracy and faster responses for LX words learned and tested with images, in line with the PSE and b/DCT. ERP results revealed smaller Late Positive Complex (LPC) amplitudes for words preceded by image compared to lexical primes, likely reflecting less cognitively demanding lexical retrieval. These results provide converging evidence that visual referents provide a more salient modality for L2 learning.

We examined the morphosyntactic prediction ability of child heritage speakers and the role of reading skills and language experience in predictive processing. Using visual world eye-tracking, we focused on predictive use of case-marking cues in Turkish with monolingual (N = 49, MAGE = 83 months) and heritage children, who were early bilinguals of Turkish and Dutch (N = 30, MAGE = 90 months). We found quantitative differences in the magnitude of the prediction ability of monolingual and heritage children; however, their overall prediction ability was on par. The heritage speakers’ prediction ability was facilitated by their reading skills in Dutch, but not in Turkish, as well as by their heritage language exposure, but not by engagement in literacy activities. These findings emphasize the facilitatory role of reading skills and spoken language experience in predictive processing. This study is the first to show that in a developing bilingual mind, effects of reading on prediction can take place across modalities and across languages.

This study investigates cross-linguistic influence in bilingual children, examining whether activation of a bilingual’s other language or a structure from that language leads to differences in the magnitude of cross-linguistic influence. We triangulate evidence from both across-language and within-language priming experiments conducted with 36 Italian–Greek bilingual children aged 7 to 11. We designed the priming experiments to prime the verb-subject-object (VSO) word-order – an inappropriate structure in Italian but grammatical in Greek – following a VSO in Italian or in Greek. We observed a gradual increase in VSO production in Italian throughout the tasks, particularly in the across-language priming experiment. The results are discussed in terms of implicit learning mechanisms underlying priming and the connectedness of syntactic representations in bilingual grammar, supporting a model of cross-linguistic influence in which both structure and language activation play a role. Effects of age and dominance in Greek varied between the two priming conditions.

Unbalanced bilinguals often exhibit reduced emotionality in their non-native language, although the underlying neural mechanisms remain poorly understood. This fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) study investigated neural differences during a silent reading task where late Spanish–English bilinguals read happy, fearful and neutral fiction passages in their first (L1) and second (L2) languages. We observed a significant language-by-emotionality interaction in the left hippocampus while participants read fearful texts, indicating a stronger limbic system response in L1. Functional connectivity analyses revealed lower coupling between semantic (left anterior temporal lobe) and limbic (left amygdala) regions when reading fearful texts in L2, suggesting less integrated emotional processing. Overall, these findings show that emotional reading in unbalanced bilinguals is strongly influenced by language, with a higher emotional response and more integrated connectivity between semantic and affective areas in the native language.

Despite often featuring in theoretical accounts, the exact impact of typological similarity on non-native language comprehension and its corresponding neural correlates remains unclear. We examined the modulatory role of typological similarity in syntactic violation processing in the non-native language Spanish, for example [el volcán] versus [*la volcán], and in cross-linguistic influence. Participants were Italian late learners of Spanish (similar language pair) or German late learners of Spanish (less similar language pair). We measured P600 amplitudes, accuracy and response times. In line with our predictions, we found a larger P600 effect and differential CLI effects for Italian-Spanish speakers compared to German-Spanish speakers. Behaviourally, Italian-Spanish speakers responded slower compared to German-Spanish speakers. Together, these results indicate typological similarity effects in non-native comprehension as reflected in a processing advantage for typologically similar languages, but only at the neural level. These findings have critical implications for the interplay of different languages in the multilingual brain.

We corroborate findings showing a disparity in one’s willingness to update political beliefs in the face of counterevidence among bilinguals, examining the role of the Foreign Language effect (FLe) on belief maintenance. 133 Liberal English-Spanish bilinguals and 70 English monolinguals showed that belief change on political issues is lesser than on nonpolitical issues following counterevidence. Bilinguals, however, showed greater change in the second language (L2) compared to the first and greater belief change than the monolinguals overall. The second language also led to slower reading and rating times across all conditions, which corresponded with greater belief change. Among bilinguals using their L2, those most likely to show belief change reported having a less meaningful connection to the foreign language.

We investigate the processing of scalar inferences in first language (L1) and second language (L2). Expanding beyond the common focus on the scalar inference from ‘some’ to ‘not all’, we examine six scalar expressions: ‘low’, ‘scarce’, ‘might’, ‘some’, ‘most’ and ‘try’. An online sentence-picture verification task was used to measure the frequency and time course of scalar inferences for these expressions. Participants included native English speakers, native Slovenian speakers and Slovenian speakers who spoke English as their L2. The first two groups were tested in their L1, while the third group was tested in their L2. Results showed that the English-L2 group resembled the Slovenian-L1 group more than the English-L1 group in terms of inference frequency. The time course for scalar inference computation was similar across all groups. These findings suggest subtle pragmatic transfer effects from L1 to L2, varying across different scalar expressions.

Prospective memory (PM) relies on switching processes to change from the ongoing activity to the future intention. Similarly, bilinguals in dual-language contexts are frequently required to switch between languages. In this study, we experimentally simulated the exposure to a dual-language context in a sample of single-language context bilinguals to explore the effect of language switching on PM. Thus, a group of bilinguals practiced language switching previous to the PM task (practice group) and were compared to a homologous group that did not receive this practice (control group). Event-related potential results indicated that the practice group showed greater wave amplitudes than the control group in the components associated to monitoring and switching processes. Whereas, this practice did not affect the retrospective components associated with the retrieval of the intention. This suggested that the interactional context in which bilinguals are immersed modulates their cognitive control strategies in charge of recalling future intentions.

Most people are multilingual, and most multilinguals code-switch, yet the characteristics of code-switched language are not fully understood. We developed a chatbot capable of completing a Map Task with human participants using code-switched Spanish and English. In two experiments, we prompted the bot to code-switch according to different strategies, examining (1) the feasibility of such experiments for investigating bilingual language use and (2) whether participants would be sensitive to variations in discourse and grammatical patterns. Participants generally enjoyed code-switching with our bot as long as it produced predictable code-switching behavior; when code-switching was random or ungrammatical (as when producing unattested incongruent mixed-language noun phrases, such as ‘la fork’), participants enjoyed the task less and were less successful at completing it. These results underscore the potential downsides of deploying insufficiently developed multilingual language technology, while also illustrating the promise of such technology for conducting research on bilingual language use.

Although accumulating evidence has demonstrated the foreign language (FL) effect in various scenarios, it remains underexplored whether the FL effect (FLe) would be modulated by the affective valence of scenarios. Hence, we investigated the FLe on the perception of egoistic lies and altruistic lies behaviorally and electrophysiologically. Behavior results showed that compared to using a native language (NL), using a FL led to more agreement with egoistic lies but a comparable level with altruistic lies. Electrophysiological results showed that skin conductance responses (SCRs) elicited by the truth were stronger in the FL compared to that in the NL, whereas SCRs elicited by lies, although strong, exhibited less sensitivity to the altruistic/egoistic condition. SCRs suggested that increased cognitive thinking and reduced affective thinking may contribute to the FLe on egoistic lies dependently or interactively, but these mechanisms cannot accommodate altruistic lies. The results implied the FLe is more stable and obvious in negative contexts.

This study investigated the neural mechanisms underlying bilingual speech perception of competing phonological representations. A total of 57 participants were recruited, consisting of 30 English monolinguals and 27 Spanish-English bilinguals. Participants passively listened to stop consonants while watching movies in English and Spanish. Event-Related Potentials and sLORETA were used to measure and localize brain activity. Comparisons within bilinguals across language contexts examined whether language control mechanisms were activated, while comparisons between groups assessed differences in brain activation. The results showed that bilinguals exhibited stronger activation in the left frontal areas during the English context, indicating greater engagement of executive control mechanisms. Distinct activation patterns were found between bilinguals and monolinguals, suggesting that the Executive Control Network provides the flexibility to manage overlapping phonological representations. These findings offer insights into the cognitive and neural basis of bilingual language control and expand current models of second language acquisition.

Bilinguals simultaneously activate both languages during word retrieval. False cognates, words overlapping in form but not meaning across languages, typically trigger crosslinguistic interference relative to non-cognates. Crosslinguistic interference resolution can be impaired in bilinguals with stroke-induced aphasia, yet little is known about the neural dynamics supporting these interference resolution processes. We recorded scalp electroencephalography in 21 age-matched controls and five bilinguals with aphasia participating in a picture-word interference paradigm eliciting crosslinguistic interference and a nonlinguistic spatial Stroop task. Bilinguals with aphasia showed lower performance than age-matched controls and crosslinguistic interference was present across both groups. A medial frontal component peaking around 400 ms post stimulus presentation was present in controls across tasks but was absent in the linguistic task in bilinguals with aphasia. This suggests that while bilinguals typically engage the medial frontal cortex to resolve crosslinguistic interference, this mechanism is disrupted in bilinguals with aphasia.

Code-blending is the simultaneous expression of utterances using both a sign language and a spoken language. We expect that like code-switching, code-blending is linguistically constrained and thus we investigate two hypothesized constraints using an acceptability judgment task. Participants rated the acceptability of code-blended utterances designed to be consistent or inconsistent with these hypothesized constraints. We find strong support for the proposed constraint that each modality of code-blended utterances contributes content to a single proposition. We also find support for the proposed constraint that – at least for American Sign Language (ASL) and English – code-blended utterances make use of a single derivation which is realized using surface forms in the two languages, rather than two simultaneous derivations, one for each language. While this study was limited to ASL/English code-blending and further investigation is needed, we hope that this novel study will encourage future research comparing linguistic constraints on code-blending and code-switching.

This study investigates heritage speakers (HSs) of Spanish in the U.S. and potential areas of divergence in speech from homeland speakers. To examine the relative contribution of prosody and segments in perceived heritage accent, we conducted an accent rating task with speech samples of second language learners (L2s), HSs and homeland speakers presented in three conditions: original, prosody-only and segments-only. The stimuli were rated by two groups: HSs and homeland speakers. The results revealed that HSs and homeland speakers had similar global accent perceptions, rating HSs as more native-like than L2s but less native-like than homeland speakers. We found that both rater groups aligned with a dominant language ideology of Spanish; speakers who were judged as more native-like were perceived as residing in a Spanish-speaking country. Our findings also demonstrate that prosody contributes more to perceived heritage accent than segments, while segments contribute more to L2 foreign accent than prosody.

Although web-based data collection has become increasingly popular in (linguistic) research over the past years, many researchers are still cautious about collecting data via the internet. Thus, this study aims at comparing web-based and lab-based testing of linguistic manipulations that have resulted in robust findings in previous lab-based research on bilingual language processing. A total of 134 L1 German students of L2 English participated in two experiments in a web-based (n = 78) or lab-based setting (n = 56). The study examined potential language co-activation through cognates in an English Lexical Decision Task (Experiment 1) and the use of L2 lexical and syntactic information in English relative clause processing in a Self-paced Reading Task (Experiment 2). We found comparable evidence of lexical and syntactic processing in both groups in both experiments. Critically, this paper provides important methodological implications for web-based data collections with second language learners.

We investigated which objective language proficiency tests best predict the language dominance, balance, English and Spanish proficiency scores relative to Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI) scores (averaged across 5–6 raters). Eighty Spanish–English bilinguals completed OPIs, picture naming, semantic and letter fluency, lexical decision tests and a language history questionnaire. Except for letter fluency, objective measures explained more variance than self-report variables, which seldom and negligibly improved proficiency prediction beyond objective measures in forward regression models. Picture naming (the Multilingual Naming Test (MINT) Sprint 2.0) was the strongest predictor for most purposes. Lexical decision and category fluency were next best predictors, but the latter was time-consuming to score, while the former was easiest to administer (and does not require bilingual examiners). Surprisingly, self-rated proficiency better predicted the OPI scores when averaged across modalities (i.e., including reading/writing instead of just spoken proficiency), and lexical-decision (a written test) was as powerful as picture naming for predicting spoken Spanish (but not language dominance).

Individuals differ in a range of processes related to reading comprehension, including working memory capacity, decoding skills, inference making and main idea identification. In this exploratory study, we examined evoked potential N400 amplitude during reading comprehension tasks and focused on identifying the main idea in the text, modulated by working memory capacity. Participants included monolinguals or bilinguals who were either typical readers (n = 33) or had been diagnosed with dyslexia (n = 19). Analyses revealed significant group differences for main idea conditions. Participants with dyslexia showed greater N400 amplitude than typical readers, particularly in the right hemisphere, when the main idea was in the last position in the paragraph. There were no significant differences in performance between bilinguals and monolinguals, which does not support the idea of a cognitive advantage for bilingualism. It was noteworthy that, if they had dyslexia, they were similarly negatively impacted by their reading disability. Findings highlight the processing advantages typical readers have relative to dyslexia.

Many erroneous literal translations, often produced by low-proficiency bilinguals, can be attributed to a tendency to favor typical translation equivalents; however, the underlying neural mechanism remains poorly understood. This study investigated this typicality effect in real-time translation with the event-related brain potential (ERP) technique. Mandarin Chinese–English bilinguals were presented with a Chinese verb phrase (e.g., kāi chuānghù “open the window” or kāi diànnăo “turn on the computer”) followed by an English verb (e.g., open (a typical translation) or turn on (an atypical translation)) and judged whether the English verb was an appropriate/congruent translation of the verb in the Chinese verb phrase previously presented (e.g., kāi). Compared to typical translation equivalents, atypical equivalents elicited an N400, indicating retrieval difficulty, and an f-PNP in congruent trials, reflecting the effort to inhibit typical translations and integrate atypical ones. This pattern may arise from differences in resting-level activation between typical and atypical equivalents.