2. Instructional variables and designs

A pervasive theme in these theses is the effects of different instructional variables and designs relative to a number of learning-related issues, which seem to lend themselves quite comfortably to measurable, quantitative studies. Şimşek (Reference Şimşek2009) and Kahraman (Reference Kahraman2009) were concerned with the role of first language (L1) use in the EFL classroom. The study by Şimşek investigates the effects of L1-assisted language learning – a language teaching/learning model that was designed by Şimşek with the aim of teaching second language (L2) grammar concepts with the help of the use of L1 concepts – on the achievement of learners of English grammar and the retention of learning. Kahraman, on the other hand, focuses on the role of L1 use in fostering affective factors and cognitive benefits. Against the backdrop of a robust review of the literature and previous research studies on the issue, both Şimşek and Kahraman adopted a rather optimistic position, which anticipates a positive impact. Both were classroom-based studies employing a pre-test/post-test controlled experimental design, and the researchers were also the teachers.

Şimşek's study, adopting a non-equivalent groups design, was conducted with two intact groups that were chosen randomly from the C-levelFootnote ¹ English classes in the school of foreign languages of a state university. The teaching procedures to which the experimental and control groups were exposed included the teaching of five modals – ability, necessity, permission, advisability, and logical probability – over a five-week period with five hours of teaching each week and described in detail, providing sample daily lesson plans, activities, and materials used. In the experimental group, the students were exposed to the teaching procedures designed in accordance with the principles of L1-assisted language learning, whereas the students in the control group were exposed to so-called English-only, traditional grammar teaching procedures which were inductive in nature. To test the achievement of the learners, a 40-item English grammar test focusing on modality in English was designed by the researcher and administered three times as the pre-test, the immediate post-test, and the delayed post-test. In addition, an exit survey including three open-ended questions was used after the completion of the intervention to collect data about the opinions of the students in the experimental group about the teaching procedures. The results of the study found that the L1-assisted language learning practices were more effective than the English-only, traditional inductive methods in increasing the learning of English grammar, and that the grammar learnt through the L1-assisted language learning process was more longlasting. Furthermore, the analysis of data from the exit survey suggested a positive perception of the use of the L1 concepts in the teaching of grammar on the part of the students, with the view that it not only facilitated and accelerated learning but also rendered it more effective and longlasting.

The effect of L1 use, albeit with a focus on affective and cognitive factors, is central, too, to Kahraman's (Reference Kahraman2009) dissertation. The research questions guiding the study were as follows: (1) Do participants’ anxiety levels decrease with the use of L1? (2) Is there any significant relationship (correlation) between learners’ attitudes and anxiety levels? (3) Is there any significant relationship between L1 use and efficient learning? To this end, Kahraman employed a pre-test/post-test controlled experimental research design. The participants included two intact groups each consisting of 21 freshman students enrolled in the Advanced Reading and Writing Skills I course at the ELT division at the Faculty of Education of Hacettepe University. The data collection procedure was twofold: descriptive, and experimental. The descriptive part consisted of an attitude scale towards L1 use and the foreign language writing classroom anxiety scale originally developed by Horwitz, Horwitz & Cope (Reference Horwitz, Horwitz and Cope1986) for speaking classes and adopted by the researcher by making slight modifications to suit the requirements of the writing course. Both scales were administired twice – as the pre-test and the post-test. The experimental part centered on paragraphs written by the participants. In the control group students were not allowed to use their L1 but in the experimental group they did on suggested occasions when they faltered with the target language in in-class communication and negotiation. Data were collected through observations and recordings throughout the treatment period, and, at the end of the in-class treatment, the participants in both groups also wrote a diary considering the effects of excluding or using L1 in their writing classroom. In addition, at the end of each task, the paragraphs were evaluated and scored by three raters using a grading scale to measure achievement.

The results regarding the first research question found that learners’ anxiety levels decreased with the use of L1 as there was a significant difference in outcomes before and after the treatment. Especially the items regarding fear of humiliation, fear of being less competent, lack of self-confidence, and self-comparison with others were found to display a meaningful decrease immediately after the treatment. Analysis of the in-class observations throughout the treatment period also showed that allowing L1 use on suggested occasions raised learners’ self-confidence and reduced anxiety especially, thereby increasing class participation and providing a more positive environment for improving the target language. Furthermore, it saved time in the L2 classroom. Thus, the results of the diary study clearly suggested that L1 use fostered cooperative and independent learning, reduced anxiety and, therefore, increased motivation and confidence.

As regards the second research question, the data analysis revealed that although there was no significant correlation between and among the participants’ attitude and anxiety levels, participants in general had a positive attitude towards L1 use in L2 classrooms before treatment and this did not change after treatment. Regarding the third research question, it was concluded that there was a high correlation between participants’ anxiety level and their language achievement, which, in this case, was measured through their writing scores. That is, in the experimental group, the participants’ L1 affected their writing performances in a positive way and decreased their anxiety level. Having explored this issue, which is contentious not only in Turkey but also worldwide, both Şimşek and Kahraman contribute to the field by providing positive evidence regarding the use of L1 as a resource and facilitator in foreign language classes.

The following two theses are both concerned with the effects of different instructional designs on EFL learners’ pragmatic competence/performance. While Özdemir's (Reference Özdemir2010) quasi-experimental research investigated the effect of explicit and implicit instruction on teenage EFL learners’ pragmatic competence with a particular focus on request speech acts, Akpınar's (Reference Akpınar2009) pre-test/post-test experimental research examined the effects of using theater extracts in EFL classes to teach apologies and refusals, and their effect on learners’ use of apology and refusal strategies.

In Akpınar's meticulous research, the treatment group (EFLT) was exposed to 13 hours of instruction in apologizing and refusal strategies using theater extracts while the control group (EFLC) continued the original prep-school curriculum. Data were collected through discourse role-play tests (DRPTs), in which situations were carefully designed to be probable and realistic, and contextual factors, such as status and social distance, were taken into account. Like DRPTs, the theater extracts used in EFLT classes were carefully adapted and their readability level was measured with the readability SMOG calculator (www.harrymclaughlin.com/SMOG.htm). The researcher enriched the intervention with various handouts, consciousness-raising activities on apologies and refusals, and open-ended written discourse completion tasks. The researcher also used an evaluation form which was adapted from Lyster (Reference Lyster1993) to investigate the EFLT group's reaction towards the theater extracts and pragmatic instruction. In addition to DRPTs and the evaluation form, Akpınar videotaped the experimental group's treatment and tests. For data analyses, she used the coding scheme developed by Olshtain & Cohen (Reference Olshtain, Cohen, Nessa and Elliot1983) for apologies, and that of Beebe, Takahashi & Uliss Weltz (Reference Beebe, Takahashi, Uliss-Weltz, Scarcella, Anderson and Krashen1990) for refusals. In addition to her use of the two recognized coding schemes, she ensured the reliability of the coding process by using two English teachers other than herself (one native, one non-native) as coders, both of whom were trained in how to use the coding schemes and code the data. Based on the results, Akpınar concluded that teaching apologies and refusals via theater extracts had positive effects on learners’ strategy use.

The thesis by Özdemir includes a pre-test, instruction, and post-test series which was administered to a research population of thirty-eight 7th grade students of English (elementary to pre-intermediate) at a private primary school in Istanbul. First, a discourse completion pre-test as administered to elicit request speech acts from students in three 7th grade classes who were randomly assigned to explicit, implicit, and control groups. Next, the experimental groups were given five hours of instruction, after which a discourse completion post-test was given to each of the groups. The data were analyzed according to alerters, supportive moves, and request head-act strategies. The results of intra-group analyses indicated that the greatest knowledge development of alerters occurred in the explicit group; the implicit group outperformed the explicit group very slightly in supportive moves and no change in supportive moves was observed in the control group; and the explicit group showed the greatest knowledge development in request head-act strategy use. The intergroup analyses, on the other hand, showed that there was no significant difference among the groups in respect of the number and types of alerters and supportive moves they used after the instructional treatment, and there was a significant difference among the three groups regarding the number and types of request head-act strategies they used.

The next two theses reviewed in this section focus on the effects of two different instructional designs on teaching English to young gifted learners, which is a an under-researched population for ELT scholars in Turkey. While Bulut's (Reference Bulut2009) dissertation states its twofold aim as first to compose a syllabus/curriculum to suit the requirements of the gifted young learners on their EFL courses and second to test its efficiency in the teaching of the four language skills, as well as grammar and vocabulary, Akçayoğlu (Reference Akçayoğlu2011) aims to have a thorough understanding of how gifted young learners learn EFL and also to explore the role of strategies-based language instruction in teaching English to young gifted learners with the ultimate aim of making their learning even more effective.

Undertaken at a primary school that served as a pilot school for the gifted learners in the city of Istanbul, Bulut's research was designed as experimental, including a control group of 4th grade students aged 9, which was a group of 12 gifted and 12 ‘normal’ students, and an experimental group of other 4th grade students that included 13 gifted and 10 normal students. The study lasted for six weeks during which students received instruction of four hours a week. The materials were restricted to the two units that were being taught at the time. The methodology was based on pre-testing the learners’ skills, grammar, and vocabulary competencies, followed by an enriched program of instruction for the experimental group and regular instruction for the control group, and then a final post-test.

There was a significant difference between the post-test results of the experimental group that received enriched instruction and those of learners who received regular instruction in skills, grammar, and vocabulary. It was also stated that when scores of gifted and normal students were compared within their respective groups, findings were similar: the scores of the experimental group outweighed those of the control group, leading to the conclusion that both the normal and gifted students were seen to have benefited from enriched instruction provided for the experimental group. It can be concluded that the ‘enriched program’ which has been rather generally defined as a combination of topic-based, action-oriented, and task-based instruction utilizing multiple intelligences in a variety of ways, thus, seems not only to be meeting the needs of gifted but also normal students. This, then, casts doubt upon the validity of the program exclusively for use of the gifted learners. Hence, the model proposed by the researcher appears not easily replicable for the instruction of gifted students.

Akçayoğlu's study was located in a learning center which served gifted children in general off-the-shelf programs in Adana. She investigated 10- to 13-year-old, gifted children's attitudes towards learning English, their use of foreign language learning (FLL) strategies, English proficiency, and perceptions of strategy-based English instruction. The action research included questionnaires, think-aloud protocols, proficiency tests, an FLL strategy inventory, group discussions, interviews, and written accounts. Overall, the researcher came to the conclusion that students benefited from strategy-based English instruction, particularly in terms of strategy use, speaking performance, and reading skills, and deemed the instruction as being effective. It must be noted, however, that the researcher did not provide essential details of the instruction, which would not only furnish teachers practicing in similar settings with instructional guidelines but also give other researchers the opportunity to replicate the research. Furthermore, given that the stated purpose of the study is twofold, the fulfilment of the first aim, of having a thorough understanding of how gifted young learners learn EFL, seems deficient since the literature review omitted the specifics of how gifted children accomplish this and made no connection to strategy-based instruction in education for the gifted.

The two studies that follow focus on writing skills. Kavandi (Reference Kavandi2012) and Çiftçi (Reference Çiftçi2011) investigate instructional techniques to enhance writing proficiency. While Çiftçi analyzes the effect of peer feedback, Kavandi explores the effect of using blogs on learners’ writing proficiency in the Iranian context. Both studies employed a pre/post-test, control/experimental group, and interview research design. However, in these studies the qualitative data obtained from interviews were neither presented nor interpreted.

The aim of Kavandi's study was to investigate the effects of using blogs on learners’ writing proficiency in Iran after a 14-week instructional period. There were 30 learners included: 15 in the control group and 15 in the experimental. While the control group pupils were taught using only the materials proposed by the institute to teach writing for TOEFL and IELTS exams, the experimental group used blogs to provide and receive feedback from peers and classmates as well as to edit and post their writings. However, in each group, a process approach to the teaching of writing was adopted. The output of learners in each group was assessed utilizing the components of the so-called ‘6 + 1’ method of writing, namely ideas, organization, voice, word choice, sentence fluency, convention, and presentation. The data collection tools were tests administered at the beginning and end of the program combined with learners’ papers evaluated using the 6 + 1 methodology. Test results were compared for the groups and they supported the hypothesis of the study that weblog writing instruction affected writing proficiency positively. The assessment of learners’ papers showed that experimental group learners outperformed control group members in overall quality of ideas, organization, voice, word choice, sentence fluency, and convention. The presentation component was disregarded in the evaluation process.

Çiftçi examined the effect of peer feedback on writing achievement of intermediate-level preparatory program students. Thirty-nine students were included in the study's control group and 36 in its experimental group. The literature review thoroughly investigated the topic, peer feedback, and included studies providing not only positive but also negative results. This study also incorporated a pre-test/post-test controlled experimental research design. Experimental group students, unlike control group members, received training on peer feedback; however, both groups were asked to provide feedback following their essay writing and this was compared. The study concluded that the feedback quality of the experimental group was higher than that of the control group and, thus, training in peer feedback was effective in increasing the writing proficiency of students.

Another study with a focus on feedback is Sarandi's (Reference Sarandi2009) quasi-experimental study which examines the effects of corrective ‘recast and prompt’ on EFL learners’ acquisition of simple present-tense, third-person conjugations. The researcher presented a comprehensive literature review in which he examined corrective feedback both in L1 and L2, and outlined manifestations of fundamental theories in teaching techniques such as focus-on-form and focus-on-meaning and their relation to different types of feedback including recasts and prompts. The study involved three groups with a total of 36 students who were each randomly assigned to one of the groups: a control group, an experimental group which received corrective feedback through recast, and another experimental group which received corrective feedback through prompts. While recast was provided through falling stress and intonation in order to direct learner attention onto the salient target feature, prompts were provided through repetition and elicitation. In the prompt group, the teacher elicited the correct form from the students through first repeating the inaccurate sentence, then asking for clarification, and finally by pushing students to self-correct the inaccurate output.

The data, gathered by means of Grammatical Judgment Test (GJT) and Oral Communication Tasks (OCT) as pre-tests, post-tests, and delayed post-tests, were subjected to quantitative analyses. The researcher thoroughly piloted GJT and calculated its Cronbach Alpha value to ensure its validity OCTs designed by the researcher were also pilot-tested to ensure they elicited the desired amount of target structure. The quantitative analysis of the ungrammatical items of the GJT indicated that neither corrective recast nor prompts had an immediate or delayed effect on learners’ explicit knowledge. The results of OCT, on the other hand, showed that the corrective recast group significantly outperformed the control group in the immediate OCT but no statistically significant differences were observed between the groups in the delayed post-test. Throughout the pre-test, post-test, and delayed post-test, the corrective recast group displayed greater and more constant improvement. Thus, corrective recast had a better effect on learners’ implicit knowledge than did prompts.

The rest of the reviews in this section include a variety of foci, ranging from language learning games to error correction; explicit and incidental teaching of verb-noun collocation; and corrective recast and prompt in the learning of grammatical items. The main research area of the study conducted by Özışık (Reference Özışık2011) is error analysis and treatment. The researcher first identified 60 inter-lingual errors of Turkish learners of EFL on the use of prepositions during his teaching career at preparatory language classes of a private university and then developed and implemented remedial teaching for those preposition errors resulting from mother tongue interference. To this end, two groups of learners were each taught adjective, noun, and verb plus preposition combinations for seven weeks, each week including 50 minutes of teaching. One group practiced preposition combinations with fill-in-the-gaps exercises of contextualized reading and speaking tasks, whereas the other group learned by spotting and correcting errors in the uses of preposition in contextualized reading activities, Turkish to English translation and speaking activities. A test was applied to learners at the beginning and end of remedial teaching practices to see the difference in learning.

Results revealed that the error rate of learners was nearly the same for both intra- and inter-lingual errors. Although there was no statistically significant difference in the error rates of the two groups, the percentage decrease in the error rate of the second group, who used error spotting and correction in contextualized reading activities alongside translation and speaking activities, showed that teaching practices used with this group supported learning prepositions to a greater degree than the teaching practices of the first group.

Azarmi (Reference Azarmi2010) focuses on the use of children's games to enhance FLL and motivation of learners. Azarmi's purpose was to test the main hypotheses that using authentic games contributes to motivation of learners and classroom learning, and enhances the enjoyment of the learning experience for young learners. The researcher employed a pre-test/post-test controlled experimental research design that included two classes of control groups (one first grade junior, one second grade junior) and two classes of experimental groups. The stated conclusion of the study was that using ‘adapted authentic childhood games’ with the children in the experimental group contributed to FLL in the sense that they showed better performance in pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, fluency, and problem-solving. They also had increased learner motivation, and enjoyed their lessons (pp. 93–94). Yet, a more detailed presentation of both data collection and analysis would have provided readers with better insight.

Vural's (Reference Vural2010) experimental study investigates the use of three instructional techniques, namely explicit teaching, incidental teaching, and incidental teaching with higher encounter frequency, which requires a certain number of encounters with the selected semantic items for their retention. The study particularly aims to explore the effects of these three instructional techniques on learners’ development of the knowledge of formal and semantic aspects of verb-noun collocations, and on students’ use of target collocations in a cloze-reading text. Vural started his dissertation with a literature review on collocations and their place and reflection on language teaching. This was rich in content and included up-to-date research studies and discussion of their findings. Following his review, he introduced his immediate and delayed post-test design study, which measured participants’ form-recognition, meaning-recognition, and use of target collocations in a cloze-reading test. He also examined how the three instructional groups retained the selected semantic items.

Vural's data collection method is rich in variety, with four different instruments (Form Recognition 1 & 2, Meaning Recognition, and Reading Cloze Test). The key finding of the study indicated that the explicit teaching group outperformed both of the implicit teaching groups, and no statistically significant difference was detected among the three instructional groups in terms of their retention profiles. Overall, despite the meticulous presentation of the teaching materials and lesson plans used, the exclusion of a control group against which to compare the results obtained could be seen as a limitation.

Oral (Reference Oral2009) did not refer to the effects of any singular instructional variable but focused on the totality of classroom instruction. Informed by the principles and concerns of critical pedagogy, this study explored how power relations worked and functioned at the micro level of classroom interaction in an EFL setting, employing the analytical tools of critical ethnography, critical discourse analysis and classroom discourse analysis. The many objectives of the study included an investigation of these techniques operating across different aspects of classroom interaction; the productive or oppressive nature of power; students’ involvement in decision-making processes; and the different strategies of resistance experienced in response to these particular techniques of power. Participants were the native-speaking English teacher and his fourteen 7th grade students (13-14-year-olds), who were enrolled at a private primary school. Forty-one hours of audio recordings of classroom interactions and field notes taken during 57 hours of passive observation constituted the database of the research, which were transcribed for an intensive analysis. There were also two interviews carried out with the teacher.

In the data analysis and interpretation, Oral focused on the organization of classroom space, control of students, interactional routines and participation rights, and the interplay of directing and questioning. The use of students’ L1 as a resource to describe how power relations were developed in the classroom was also evaluated. The results of Oral's research demonstrates that power is not an entity that is singularly exercised by the teacher but rather constructed by all participants across a variety of aspects of classroom interactions such as control of space and movement, directing and questioning, interactional routines and participation rights, and students’ use of L1. It is also posited that the ideological bases of how the teacher perceives ‘good/bad, appropriate/inappropriate’ might have implications for the construction of power relations. Consequently, the study supports the view that power is an inevitable constant in pedagogy but it is not singlehandedly exercised by the teacher upon students; rather, it is an ongoing negotiation by all concerned. Despite its stated caveat that it may have tended to generalize its results, the primary significance of Oral's study lies in its ethnographic research design that presents a detailed and profound understanding of the selected classroom from the standpoint of power relations at a micro level.

3. Learners

The theses reviewed below are concerned with the traits of learners as ‘individuals’ and their relation to FLL and teaching. In this respect, the theses are presented in two categories: those which analyzed (1) learner autonomy and (2) learners’ beliefs, attitudes and perceptions. The first group includes theses with different foci. Mete (Reference Mete2010), Üğüten (Reference Üğüten2009) and Boyno (Reference Boyno2011) investigated learner autonomy in relation to distance learning, writing portfolio and writing achievement, and the factors influencing learner autonomy, respectively. Mete and Boyno's quantitative studies both comprehensively reviewed learner autonomy in relation to individual factors such as attitudes, motivation, age, gender, multiple intelligences, and learning styles.

Mete's survey study examines the effects of DynEd, self-use e-language learning software which adopts an eclectic approach to language teaching and which has been widely used in state primary schools in Turkey since the academic year 2008–2009. Data were collected through a 20-item Likert-type questionnaire, whose validity and reliability had been verified. The quantitative data gathered from 7th and 8th graders (n = 874) in two state primary schools in İstanbul were analyzed using the SPSS program. Analyses of the data indicated that DynEd was not successful in providing students with learner autonomy in that 92% of them stopped using that software. Mete did find, however, that there was a statistically significant positive correlation between age and autonomy levels of learners. According to the analysis, the older the student, the higher the autonomy level. Similarly, the analysis indicated a higher level of autonomy among female students than among males. Furthermore, Mete found a significantly higher autonomy level among students who did use the software. Following the presentation of the weaknesses and strengths of the software, the study concluded that e-learning software should be designed in a way that would accurately and effectively reflect the pedagogical principles of learner autonomy.

Boyno's thesis (Reference Boyno2011) investigated the correlation between students’ perceptions of learner autonomy and a wide range of factors including achievement level, attitudes towards English language learning, multiple intelligence areas, learning styles, motivation, emotional intelligence, and gender. The participants were 116 students who were attending a state high school. The study had a quantitative and exploratory research design. Several questionnaires either borrowed from other researchers or were tailor-made by combining or compiling items from different questionnaires created to collect data. The data obtained were analyzed using independent sample t-test, one-way ANOVA, and correlations. The choice of any particular analysis method depended on the number of permanent variables and dimensions involved.

The results of the study displayed a statistically significant positive correlation between students’ perceptions of learner autonomy and academic achievement, the naturalistic intelligence arena, and all dimensions of attitudes towards English language learning except ‘in-school learning’ of English. Results also revealed a statistically significant positive correlation between learner autonomy and sub-dimensions of learning styles – namely, dependent, competitive, collaborative, and participant learning styles. However, no statistically significant correlation was detected between autonomy and two learning styles: independent, and avoidant learning styles. A positive correlation between learner autonomy and dimensions of motivation was also found. In respect of learned helplessness, the author did not find any correlation between autonomy and sub-dimensions of learned helplessness except a detected negative correlation between autonomy and participants’ attributing the good deeds to specific instances. In paired comparison of autonomy and sub-dimensions of emotional intelligence, only sub-dimensions of independence and social responsibility had positive correlation with learner autonomy. Another intriguing result of the study was the negative correlation between learner autonomy and gender, which indicated that female participants are apt to be autonomous. Participants who liked the language also outperformed their counterparts in terms of perceiving autonomy. No correlation was obtained relative to paired comparisons of learner autonomy and parental attitudes, autonomy and brain dominance, pursuing English learning out of school and autonomy, students’ parents’ education level and autonomy, the economic levels of the students’ families and autonomy, and the attitudes of students’ parents and students’ perceived autonomy. Overall, although the study offers significant insights into the relationship between the topical issue of learner autonomy and a number of learner/learning-related factors; these factors should not be considered as static or fixed.

Like Mete (Reference Mete2010) and Boyno (Reference Boyno2011), Üğüten (Reference Üğüten2009) investigated learner autonomy. She, however, analyzed portfolio writing of learners, specifically writing achievement and autonomy, and changes to portfolio writing direction. Her work involved only 30 participants, fewer than Mete and Boyno's studies, and indeed Üğüten conceded this was a limiting factor in her study. She did, however, conduct robust research combining quantitative and qualitative data elicitation and analyses through triangulation. For quantitative analysis she relied on learners’ grade scores on tasks they performed for inclusion in their portfolios, and learner responses to a questionnaire which was administered both before and after portfolio writing. For qualitative data analyses two interviews were conducted, and reflection sheets and two cover letters were collected from the participants. The results of the reflection sheets and cover letters were analyzed in relation to a variety of variables including awareness, difficulty, improvement, motivation, responsibility, organization, reflection, and self-confidence. Üğüten conducted interviews to discover the change in learners’ thoughts about portfolio implementation. The results supported the hypothesis that portfolio use was beneficial for learners. The results of the questionnaires were analyzed and triangulated with the results of the qualitative data from cover letters and revealed an increase in learner autonomy during portfolio implementation. Furthermore, the analysis of learners’ grades showed a gradual improvement in writing achievement. However, as the collection and analysis of learners’ grades were not explicitly described, any improvement in the achievement of learners attributable to the use of portfolio writing cannot be fully verified.

The second set of theses is concerned with learners’ beliefs, attitudes, and perceptions, and their relation to language learning. Both Başaran (Reference Başaran2010) and Semiz (Reference Semiz2011) address language learning beliefs and self-efficacy perceptions of learners. While Başaran investigated the effect of podcast use on language learning beliefs and self-efficacy perceptions of 187 language learners with a mixed design study comprising both quantitative and qualitative data, Semiz (Reference Semiz2011) explored the effects of an Attributional Retraining Program on attributional beliefs, self-efficacy, language learning beliefs, achievement, and effort of motivationally at-risk EFL learners.

For quantitative data, Başaran used a variety of instruments including an English Self Efficacy Scale adapted from Rahemi (Reference Rahemi2007), the Beliefs about Language Learning Inventory developed by the researcher, and a Podcast Evaluation Form adapted from Intrinsic Motivation Inventory developed by the University of Rochester (n.d.). For qualitative data elicitation, he conducted semi-structured interviews. Başaran's study presented a robust methodology with its pilot-tested data collection instruments and research design. Moreover, different from other studies in the field that explore technology in relation to language achievement as an end-product, Başaran's study investigated the effect of podcasts on learning beliefs and self-efficacy perceptions. The results showed that some learner beliefs changed depending on the evaluation methods used, and some detrimental beliefs remained and were difficult to change. The present study suggested a positive change in learners’ beliefs concerning their motivation to listen to and practice the language with native speakers after the use of podcasts. There seemed to be no significant change in self-efficacy perceptions of learners except for some changes in certain skill domains and this change, as stated in the research itself, could be related to the positive effect of language learning podcasts on language learning outcomes. The last research question of the study addressed the perceptions of learners concerning podcast use as a language learning aid. The analysis revealed positive perceptions. However, a comparison of these perceptions may have been possible if data had been recorded at the pre-implementation stage and compared to that gathered at the post-implementation stage. Results also supported the assumption that it was difficult to eliminate the effects of earlier practices concerning podcasts.

Semiz also used a mixed method in her interventional, quasi-experimental study whose two underpinning theories were Weiner's Attribution Theory (Reference Weiner1979, Reference Weiner1985) and Bandura's Self-efficacy Theory (Reference Bandura1986). In the first phase, a pre-test including a number of scales was administered to 602 preparatory students at a Turkish state university. After identification of students who were unhappy with their mid-term grades, perceived themselves unsuccessful, and had maladaptive attributional styles, 17 students were assigned to the Attributional Retraining (AR) group, and 23 to the No-Attributional Retraining (No-AR) group, only 19 of whom took the post-test. The first phase of the study was solidly designed and implemented in terms of data collection instruments for which reliability tests and Cronbach's internal consistency tests were widely administered and pilot-tested. For qualitative data collection, semi-structured interviews were conducted with eight students. In the second phase, the AR group was exposed to three sessions: an AR videotape session, a speaking class taught by a native English-speaking teacher, and a class taught by the researcher. As a final phase, a post-test was administered after the third mid-term exam. It should be noted that while the content and materials of the first session were clearly presented and explained, further information about the second and third instructional sessions could have provided an enriched discussion of the process involved and offered a replicable research design.

In her detailed analyses of quantitative and qualitative data, Semiz categorized students’ responses with respect to the two underlying theories of the research: Attribution Theory of Achievement Motivation and Self-efficacy Theory. The major finding of the study was the positive effect that the training program had on attributional beliefs, control for learning beliefs, and effort. The brevity of intervention (three sessions) could be noted as a limitation, likely alleviated had additional sessions been possible.

The last dissertation in this category is that of Altaş (Reference Altaş2012), which investigates the effect of a quasi-negotiated syllabus on learners’ academic achievement in English and their attitudes towards English. In this pre-test/post-test design quasi-experimental study, four intact beginner English classes with a total of 88 students were divided into two experimental and two control groups consisting of the same language level participants. Altaş, teaching both the experimental and control groups, used a thoroughly pilot-tested pre-test with reliability confirmed by a strong Cronbach Alpha value. For the intervention, a negotiated syllabus (referred to as ‘freeroaming’ by the researcher, p. 5) was used for two to four hours per week over a 12-week period. Students read English storybooks, had occasional speaking hours with native English speakers, and/or foreign visitors did student presentations, and watched English movies and television. Students’ participation in the activities was voluntary. To explore the effect of intervention, an attitude test and learners’ end-of-term academic achievement scores were used.

The results of Altaş’ quantitative data analyses for comparative quantitative data analyses indicated a statistically significant difference between the groups. Aside from ‘socialization,’ the experimental group benefited from the negotiated syllabus in almost all sub-strata of the survey such as class anxiety, attitudes towards learning English, English course evaluation, English use anxiety, autonomy, negotiation, and collaboration. Moreover, comparison of the final grades of the two groups also suggested a statistically significant difference in students’ academic achievements. The experimental group conclusively benefited from the treatment and exhibited higher academic achievement. Overall, the statistical results indicated a positive effect of a quasi-negotiated approach on learners’ attitudes towards English and their academic success. Despite the intriguing results of Altaş’ research, it should be noted that triangulation of the quantitative and qualitative data and inclusion of learners’ points of view about the classes and the negotiated syllabus could have more effectively answered major questions.

4. Textbooks

The theses which focused on textbooks incorporate variability in terms of the topics addressed and the methodology utilized in their investigation. They reflect the effectiveness of the textbooks used in terms of developing skills and strategies, evaluate suitability for a particular target learner group in terms of developmental areas, or explore the textbooks’ representation of social constructs.

Recognizing writing as a skill which develops individuals’ cognitive abilities and activates their critical thinking and constructive skills, thereby expanding their potential social setting, Kıray's (Reference Kıray2011) study aims to explore the place and importance of writing instruction in the English language curriculum at state schools in Turkey from 4th to 10th grade. The theoretical introduction of the study begins with a focus on the concept of literacy and moves to models of, and approaches to, writing instruction – the latter quite extensively addressed. The literature review also highlights how the English curriculum designed by the Turkish Ministry of National Education reflects the increasing importance given to literacy skills, especially noting what the curriculum emphasizes with respect to the recent developments in the study of writing skills in EFL. As for methodology, the study used coursebook analysis and evaluation as its research method and analyzed a selected sample of ELT coursebook series used at state schools across Turkey. The study incorporated an ‘integrated model’ based on a two-phase analysis. Of the many course books in circulation, those series selected for evaluation are distinguished in that they comprise the only uninterrupted series that are used at the level targeted for this research. The books cover the curriculum as offered and are widely available and in use across the spectrum of primary education in Turkey. In the first phase of the analysis, writing activities were analyzed through a summarization of key questions on the purpose of writing: ‘Who writes what to whom for what purpose and how?’ In the second phase, writing activities were listed and grouped as ‘controlled’ and ‘free’ practices.

The findings of the study indicated that the topics covered in the selected textbooks tended to refer to an ‘outer life’ rather than ‘personal, family, regional, or national life.’ Most activities presented in all of the coursebooks leave the readers and the writer disassociated; the majority of the activities were accompanied by reading texts and activities which provide the ‘modeling’ phase of genre instruction but not a thorough analysis of the genre. The drafting and revising stages were absent in all the coursebooks; there were no activities in these books that presented a process-based approach to writing except for the Performance Task parts following each unit in much later grades (9th and 10th) and there were twice as many controlled activities as free ones. It should be noted that the researcher has thoroughly dealt with all the writing activities in the selected coursebooks within a focused frame. The detailed analysis of writing activities indicated that the textbooks which were expected to be written in accordance with the curriculum failed to do so, highlighting the gulf between the two, which lies outside the scope of the research. The study further suggested that more process-oriented, purposeful, authentic, and free writing activities should be added to these books. It also recommended that more writing tasks should be assigned to students and these tasks should also inform them who their potential readers are.

Yıldız’ study (Reference Yıldız2012) analyzes EFL coursebook activities of 10- to 11-year-old learners for material suitable for their physical, cognitive, social, and emotional development. It begins by reviewing literature that is inclusive and current, wherein TEFL is discussed as part of foreign language learning policies on a global and local scale. The thesis then undertakes a series of steps to outline the general characteristics of the age group in terms of the four developmental areas. It postulates how the stated characteristics can be projected onto English language learning and specifies particular language learning activities that will support the four development capacities of the learners. Following a loose chronological review of basic theories of child development studies and teaching English to young learners, the research is introduced by the presentation of the selected four coursebooks, two of which were locally published while the other two were foreign publications. The checklist, gathered by the researcher herself, included the categorized list of coursebook activities that were geared towards the four development areas. The descriptive analysis of coursebooks was also accompanied by the quantitative representation of the activities. The key findings indicated that all four coursebooks in question included mostly cognitive developmental activities (58% of the total number of activities), followed by emotional developmental activities. Social and physical developmental activities were least-frequently included. A comparative perspective indicated that locally published books differed from foreign-published ones in the kind of activities they prioritized, such as the use of matching activities emphasized in the locally published books with problem-solving activities being stressed in the foreign-published texts. The researcher concluded that curriculum emphasis on the use of English as a means of social development was not fully considered by any of the four coursebooks studied, highlighting an insufficiency in terms of attempting to develop the whole child through teaching them English language. Noting a limitation of the study, the researcher aptly adds that the study could be furthered by observing teachers’ in-class use of the coursebooks, noting whether or not the dearth of physical and social developmental activities is recognized and supplemented by the teachers themselves. A further suggestion notes that neglected types of activities are generally effectively addressed by Teaching English to Young Learners courses in university ELT departments.

Günay (Reference Günay2012) is primarily concerned with identities constructed and furnished to learners through textbooks in the learning and teaching of English. This study takes as its starting point the fact that the rise of identity in the field of language learning and teaching has resulted from the changes in the macro dynamics of society and this has brought about a more socially situated conceptualization of language teaching and learning. Therefore, social-constructionist approaches to identity which suggest a dialectical relationship between identity and discourse underpin Günay's exploration of discursively constructed identity varieties in the language coursebooks. They are seen as a unique form of discourse with the potential to contain, construct, and market a variety of identities concurrently to a sizeable population of students. The scope of the research was limited to the seven most widely used intermediate-level English course books in use in Turkey. Methodologically, the study adopted a critical discourse analytical approach on the grounds that it is bound to set the micro-macro connection at the socio-cultural level, thereby leaving space for a culturally situated in-depth interpretation of the textually performed identity construction process pervading the books. The study primarily drew on Fairclough's (Reference Fairclough1995) model of critical discourse analysis, Gee's (Reference Gee1999) seven building tasks and Van Leeuwen's (Reference Van Leeuwen2008) socio-semantic inventory. Based on a careful integration of four discourse analysis models and five coursebook analysis frames available in the literature, a five-stage frame of analysis was designed by the researcher and thoroughly described and employed to produce a comprehensive analysis of the books selected.

Günay concluded that learners were provided with limited options of identity representation through these multimodal means in a great many of the selected books in terms of variety, equality, and transcultural practice. His dissertation reflects one of the current agendas of the field and is novel in that he has designed a sound model of analysis which goes beyond those content analytical models which usually tend to result in a somewhat superficial interpretation of the issue. In addition, he has focused on a relatively less-investigated area in the field of identity research.

Can (Reference Can2011) analyzed the use of FLL strategies in seven English textbooks published by the Ministry of Education in Turkey in terms of how the activities could equip learners with the target strategies, and whether some degree of consciousness and awareness could be heightened through the analyzed activities. There is a thorough literature review on lifelong learning, autonomous and strategy-based learning, their conceptualization, and their implementation in the context of European Union language policies. Can also identified and elaborated on the language learning and teaching strategies behind language activities and tasks in English textbooks. His analysis covered EFL textbooks that belonged to a single series and offered material for grades 4–10. The books were published and distributed by the Turkish Ministry of Education.

Analysis was based on three main strategies namely metacognitive, cognitive, and socio-affective, and each main strategy had various sub-strategies. Following his detailed descriptive analysis of each book with specific pictured references to the activities, tasks, and exercises, Can presented the quantitative results of the main strategies, and the distribution of sub-strategies in each book. The overall results of main strategy use indicated that the vast majority of the activities and tasks (63%) promoted cognitive strategy use, and ‘using words in sentences’ (16%) was the most frequent sub-strategy promoted. Cognitive strategies were followed by socio-affective strategies (24%), and then metacognitive strategies (13%). As an overall evaluation of his research results, Can concluded his dissertation with an emphasis on the insufficiency of strategies and strategy types, and the ineffectiveness of implicit usage of the strategies. Lastly, he questioned whether lifelong FLL was encouraged when education was largely imparted via these books.

5. Program development and evaluation

The two theses in this group focus on program development and evaluation. Each examines an ongoing program in two very different settings and one offers an alternative. Özkanal's (Reference Özkanal2009) dissertation examines the English preparatory program of a state university by focusing on its aims, content, teaching-learning processes, and assessment and evaluation procedures. This study takes as its starting point the fact that this ongoing program was first started in 1996 and has not been evaluated since. It presented an overview of the literature on both foreign language teaching methods and program development and evaluation alongside a review of previous research in the field. Özkanal then presents the results of a survey study carried out with a twofold aim, first to evaluate the program with an emphasis on its efficiency and effectiveness, and then to suggest a new preparatory program model based on the results obtained. The study was located in the foreign language department of a state university. Participants were 300 students enrolled in the English preparatory program, 129 freshman students studying in English-medium departments following the completion of that preparatory program, and 27 English instructors teaching on the program.

For data collection, two questionnaires were developed by the researcher for each of the two different groups of students participating in the study. Prior to their administration, their validity and reliability were verified. In addition, an interview protocol was developed to collect qualitative data from the instructors. The questionnaire administered to freshman participants also included qualitative data derived from open-ended questions. Both quantitative and qualitative data analysis techniques were thus employed and the qualitative data were also quantified to measure the percentages of the data which were coded with the use of pre-determined categories of themes.

Analysis of the results regarding the first research question revealed that, except for the aims component, the main components of the program including content, teaching-learning processes, and assessment-evaluation procedures were not efficient. The program was generally perceived to be successful in providing freshman students with the skills and qualities that were needed while studying in an English-medium department whereas it was not sufficient in providing the technical and professional English proficiency they needed. Instructors had both positive and negative comments about different components of the program, particularly highlighting a need for an integrated-skills approach, an emphasis on technical and professional English, in-service teacher training, and expert support in program development.

These findings further laid the groundwork for the development of a new program model. The model suggested by Özkanal was not only based on the findings he obtained but also the requirements of the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) for Languages, as well as the opinions of an expert group which reviewed English language programs worldwide. Özkanal presented the overall framework of the model including the rationale behind the program, the main pedagogical principles adopted alongside the redefined aims, content, teaching-learning processes, and assessment procedures of the program. While the new model was not only reflective of the contemporary teaching approaches adopted in the field it also sought to overcome the stated weaknesses. It was, however, not tested in a pilot study and thus awaits implementation.

Turkey has been an active member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) group of nations since 1952 and this obligation has generated a practical need that military personnel be proficient in English. Training norms across member nations has required much restructuring of English language teaching and thus the main aim of Solak's (Reference Solak2010) descriptive study is the development of a syllabus in accordance with NATO Stanag 6001 Level 3 (minimum professional level) perspective for the Advanced Level English Course at Gendarmerie Schools Command. The NATO Standardization Agreement (Stanag 6001) is the document providing member nations with the guidelines for language training, testing standards, and skills needed at a variety of levels, much like the CEFR. The study first highlighted the theoretical knowledge of the military context that provided the setting for this study (NATO Stanag 6001 Language Proficiency Levels), syllabus designing and the particular context for the study. As for the research model, the study implemented Rea-Dickens & Germaine's (Reference Rea-Dickins and Germain1992) ‘descriptive data-based approach’ to evaluate the program in progress in order to gather information to form new insights into aspects of language teaching and learning. In terms of syllabus design, two models (Brown Reference Brown1995 and Richards Reference Richards2001) were taken into consideration, based on their shared assertion that curriculum is a group effort and everyone involved in the program participates in carrying out needs analysis, goal and objective setting, resolving testing issues, and developing materials. Conducted at Gendarmerie General Command and English Language Teaching Courses at Gendarmerie Schools Command in 2009, participants were divided into groups: 30 selected gendarmerie officers and NCOs currently attending English courses; 40 officers and NCOs at various ranks graduated from these courses between the years 2002 and 2008; and 6 teachers of these courses. The uneven sampling numbers were briefly explained by the restricted conditions of the military settings. Research instruments were multiple and various: ‘can do’ statements for NATO STANAG 6001 Level 3, trainee questionnaire, graduate questionnaire, teachers questionnaire, trainee interest questionnaire, a Stanag Level 3 test in four skills, KPDS (foreign language proficiency examination for state employees) scores of graduates, and some statistical data on foreign missions of the Gendarmerie personnel.

The results obtained from the analyses of the data (which were reported appraisals of the participants regarding the required skills) indicated that the ongoing program, which emphasized receptive skills, was not sufficient in reaching NATO Stanag 6001 Level 3 objectives. Upon this finding, the research shifted focus towards restructuring an improved program. It began with a list of objectives regarding the four language skills, assuming that the fulfilment of these objectives ‘will also lead the personnel to success in KPDS and 101 General Screening Exams based on reading and listening skills.’ It then suggested that a modular syllabus based on required skill, topics, and tasks was required. The rationale for the composition of these modules and the presentation of a sample module has yet to be accomplished, however.