Results

Victimological prevention of crimes against minors is a system of measures aimed at preventing their involvement in criminal situations and reducing the probability of becoming a victim of unlawful acts. In contrast to traditional criminological prevention, which focuses on preventing criminal behaviour, victimological prevention addresses the protection of potential victims, identifying vulnerabilities, developing strategies to reduce the risk of victimization and creating a safe social environment. It is central in state criminological policy, as crimes against children and adolescents hurt society, creating fear, distrust and other psychological traumas in young people that can affect future lives (Yakovleva Reference Yakovleva2023).

In many countries, victimization prevention is conducted at the state level and includes legislative initiatives, social programmes, educational projects and information campaigns. Kazakhstan, Germany and the US have different approaches to protecting minors. In Kazakhstan, the emphasis is on legal regulation, including laws to protect children from harmful information and digital cybersecurity initiatives (Zhumabekova et al. Reference Zhumabekova, Kegembayeva, Otarbayeva, Yelubayev and Abizhanov2024). The US actively implements educational programmes aimed at increasing the digital literacy of minors, such as NetSmartz (National Center for Missing & Exploited Children 2025), which ensures a conscious approach to Internet safety and cyber threat prevention for children and parents (Alowais et al. Reference Alowais, Rudd, Besa, Nazar, Shah and Tolley2023). Germany has a strict system of legal regulation, including the Protection of Young Persons Act (2002) and the General Data Protection Regulation (2016), which limits children’s access to inappropriate content and protects personal data (Verdoodt, Lievens, and Chatzinikolaou Reference Verdoodt, Lievens and Chatzinikolaou2023).

Minors are one of the most vulnerable categories of the population, as due to insufficient life experience, legal illiteracy and emotional instability, they are not always able to assess the degree of danger of certain situations. Exposure to victimization can be related to various social, psychological and institutional factors. First and foremost, children growing up in dysfunctional families with low incomes, violence, alcoholism, drug addiction and a lack of parental control are at risk. Such children are more likely to be exposed to crimes of violence, exploitation and human trafficking, and are easy victims of criminals who take advantage of their vulnerable situation for personal gain. Additionally, crimes committed in the digital environment pose a significant threat to adolescents. The use of social media, messengers, online games and other online resources makes minors targets for cyberbullying, online grooming, blackmail and sexual exploitation (Kumar et al. Reference Kumar, Vishwachetan, Mushtaq, Dayananda, Manasa and Nanda2024).

Children with disabilities are a particular risk group, unable to recognize danger or self-defence due to physical, mental or intellectual disabilities. Children are more likely to become victims of violence, manipulation and exploitation, as perpetrators take advantage of their inability to resist threats (Bretherton et al. Reference Bretherton, Berney, Javate, Castaldelli-Maia, Torales and Ventriglio2016). Another category of vulnerable minors is migrant and undocumented children. Their lack of legal status, social security and knowledge of local laws make them easy targets for criminals involved in human trafficking, forced labour and sexual exploitation.

Factors contributing to the victimization of children and adolescents can be divided into several groups (Franchino-Olsen Reference Franchino-Olsen2019). Social factors include family economic instability, inadequate parental attention, limited educational opportunities and a lack of access to reliable information about their rights. In such circumstances, children are particularly susceptible to criminal influences. Psychological factors are related to the personal characteristics of minors, such as low self-esteem, increased gullibility, inability to resist manipulation and the desire for recognition among peers. Adolescents experiencing a lack of communication and support in the family may seek attention and approval on the Internet, making them vulnerable to abuse (Stevenson Reference Stevenson2017). Institutional factors include legislative gaps, inadequate child protection efforts by law enforcement agencies, and poor coordination among government agencies, educational institutions and social services.

The development of digital technologies has led to the emergence of new threats that minors face online. In addition to traditional crimes such as violence and exploitation, modern children are exposed to online grooming, the distribution of malicious content, and involvement in dangerous flash mobs and criminal schemes. In some countries, such as the US and Germany, strict measures have already been taken to regulate the online space and protect children from digital risks, while in other countries, this area requires further improvement. Victimological prevention of crimes against minors should consider the complex nature of threats and encompass various levels of protection, ranging from legislative initiatives to educational programmes and social measures (Styazhkina Reference Styazhkina2023). Only joint efforts by the state, society and parents themselves can ensure the safety of children and reduce victimization.

An analysis of crimes against minors in different countries can identify general trends and specific features of the victimization of children and adolescents. In Kazakhstan, one of the main sources of information on crimes against minors is the reports of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, which contain data on crime dynamics, crime categories and characteristics of victims and offenders. According to the 2023 report of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Kazakhstan (Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Kazakhstan 2023), the country has seen an increase in crimes committed against minors, especially in the areas of cybercrime, human trafficking and sexual assault (Mussabekova and Mkhitaryan Reference Mussabekova and Mkhitaryan2022). Despite the state’s active measures to protect children, including the toughening of penalties for crimes against minors and the introduction of amendments to the Criminal Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan (1997), several unresolved issues remain (Geovani et al. Reference Geovani, Nurkhotijah, Kurniawan, Milanie and Ilham2021). One of the issues is the lack of awareness among children and parents about potential threats, particularly in the digital realm.

In the US, crimes against minors are subject to constant monitoring by the Federal Bureau of Investigation. According to a Federal Bureau of Investigation statistical report, crimes against children have become increasingly covert (Heide et al. Reference Heide, Michel, Cochran and Khachatryan2020). Most crimes are related to sexual exploitation, including the distribution of child pornography, online grooming and blackmail using personal data. American law enforcement agencies note that the digital environment creates new threats to minors, as criminals use the Internet and social networks to establish contact with victims. In response, the state is actively implementing digital literacy programmes, such as NetSmartz (National Center for Missing & Exploited Children 2025), and developing legislative initiatives aimed at tightening control over online platforms and protecting the personal data of minors (Pinkevich Reference Pinkevich2024). Nevertheless, despite the high level of technical equipment and significant resources allocated to combatting crimes against children, the problem of teenagers becoming involved in criminal schemes and the growth of crimes related to trafficking in minors remain relevant in the US (Quas et al. Reference Quas, Mukhopadhyay, Winks, Dianiska and Lyon2023).

In Germany, crimes against minors are investigated by the Federal Criminal Police Office (BKA), which publishes the annual report Bundeslagebild Jugendkriminalität (Oberwittler and Höfer Reference Oberwittler and Höfer2005). According to the latest data, the most common crimes against minors in Germany are violent crimes, sexual assaults and crimes related to cyber threats. Germany has a high level of legal protection for children, including strict restrictions on the dissemination of harmful content and the personal data of minors. The Protection of Young Persons Act (2002) regulates children’s access to online resources, limiting their interaction with potentially dangerous platforms (Tuasikal and Asmuruf Reference Tuasikal and Asmuruf2024). The introduction of the General Data Protection Regulation (2016) has significantly strengthened measures to control the processing of personal information of minors; however, criminals are adapting to changes in legislation by finding new ways to circumvent established restrictions (Bharti and Aryal Reference Bharti and Aryal2022).

International organizations, such as UNICEF (2025) and the World Health Organization (2025), regularly publish analytical reports on crimes against minors. The reports emphasize that the problems of crime against children are global in nature and require a comprehensive approach to address. One of the key challenges is the growth of digital threats that transcend national borders and require international cooperation (Tsymbal et al. Reference Tsymbal, Vlasova, Nikitina-Dudikova, Kharchenko and Soroka2021). UNICEF reports emphasize the importance of strengthening educational programmes for children and their parents, developing effective online protection mechanisms and increasing penalties for crimes against minors (Pinkevich Reference Pinkevich2024). The World Health Organization, in turn, has addressed the impact of crimes on the psychological health of children, noting that victims of violence and exploitation often face long-term psychological consequences, including depression, anxiety disorders and suicidal thoughts (Cuartas and Leventhal Reference Cuartas and Leventhal2019).

A comparative analysis of crime against minors in Kazakhstan, the US and Germany reveals both general trends and unique characteristics. In all countries, the most vulnerable groups are children from socially disadvantaged families, migrant minors and teenagers who actively use the Internet. Sexual offences, cyber threats, trafficking in minors and the involvement of teenagers in criminal activities remain common problems. However, approaches to addressing these problems vary depending on the socio-economic and legal context. In Kazakhstan, the emphasis is on tougher penalties and the development of digital security; in the US, on the active use of educational and preventive programmes; and in Germany, on strict legal control and the restriction of online threats. Crime trends show that despite the measures taken, criminals are adapting to changes, which requires constant improvement of mechanisms for protecting minors and the development of new strategies to combat crime.

The modern digital space, despite all its advantages, poses a substantial threat to the safety of minors, as children and adolescents become victims of cybercrime, blackmail, exploitation and other forms of online violence. One of the main problems is the lack of digital literacy among children and their parents. Many minors actively use the Internet, but are not aware of the potential risks, such as online grooming, cyberbullying, fraud and personal data leakage (Purnama et al. Reference Purnama, Ulfah, Machali, Wibowo and Narmaditya2021). Parents, on the other hand, are not always able to control their children’s online behaviour, often being insufficiently aware of modern digital threats. As a result, children are left without proper protection and exposed to malicious content, manipulation and pressure from criminals.

The difficulty of controlling online threats compounds the issue. Cyberbullying, online grooming and sexual exploitation of minors are the most common crimes in the digital environment. Cyberbullying causes severe psychological consequences, including depression, anxiety disorders and even suicidal tendencies. Online grooming, which is the process of establishing a trusting relationship between an offender and a child for sexual exploitation, remains highly difficult to detect as offenders operate covertly, using anonymous accounts and encrypted communications (Gámez-Guadix and Mateos-Pérez Reference Gámez-Guadix and Mateos-Pérez2019). Sexual exploitation of minors on the Internet is becoming a global problem, as child pornography is distributed on the darknet and in closed groups in messengers, where tracking offenders is much more difficult. An additional factor contributing to the victimization of minors is the ease of access to dangerous content. Despite the efforts of legislators, pornographic material, violent scenes, extremist propaganda and drugs remain freely available to children and adolescents (Hartle and Wydra Reference Hartle and Wydra2019).

Social media algorithms often recommend content to minors that may hurt their psyche, such as videos promoting destructive behaviour, racial prejudice or participation in dangerous challenges. There are also groups and forums where adolescents are manipulated and may be involved in destructive communities, including cults and radical movements. Many children and adolescents, especially in their teenage years, are not always aware of the possible consequences and are easily influenced by criminals who use psychological techniques to involve victims in criminal schemes.

Another substantial problem is the limited resources of law enforcement agencies in investigating crimes committed in the digital environment. Unlike traditional crimes, crimes in cyberspace are often covert, and criminals utilize modern technologies such as virtual private networks (VPNs), anonymous browsers and cryptocurrencies, which makes them difficult to identify (Maimon and Hunt Reference Maimon and Hunt2020). The actions of criminals often transcend national jurisdictions, necessitating international cooperation and coordination among various law enforcement agencies. However, even in developed countries, the process of investigating online crimes faces several challenges, including a lack of qualified specialists, insufficient technical resources and difficulty in obtaining data from international Internet companies that are not always willing to cooperate with authorities (Csontos-Nagy Reference Csontos-Nagy2023).

The national legislation of most countries is struggling to adapt to the new challenges of digital security, creating gaps in legal regulation. Some countries lack clear mechanisms for regulating the digital environment, and laws concerning the protection of minors online are outdated, failing to account for the evolving nature of modern technologies. While the US has COPPA (Children’s Online Privacy Protection Rule (“COPPA”) 1998) regulating the collection of personal data from minors, and Germany has introduced strict regulations under the Protection of Young Persons Act (2002) and the General Data Protection Regulation (2016), many countries lack adequate cybersecurity legislation, and measures to combat crime in the digital environment remain ineffective (Khan et al. Reference Khan, Saleh, Dorasamy, Khan, Leng and Vergara2022). Existing laws often focus on punishing criminals but do not contain sufficient preventive mechanisms to prevent child victimization. The lack of digital literacy, the complexity of monitoring the Internet, the accessibility of dangerous content, the lack of tools for investigating crimes and outdated legislation pose serious challenges to the protection of minors (Knack et al. Reference Knack, Winder, Murphy and Fedoroff2019). Addressing these issues requires a comprehensive approach that includes tougher legislation, international cooperation, the development of educational programmes and the introduction of modern technologies for monitoring and preventing cybercrime.

Protecting minors from criminal offences in the digital space requires not only preventive measures but also clear legal regulations ensuring control over online content, protection of personal data and accountability for crimes against children. Various countries around the world have legislative initiatives aimed at ensuring the digital safety of minors, but their effectiveness remains a subject of debate. Kazakhstan, the US and Germany demonstrate different approaches to protecting children’s rights, applying both national legislation and international regulations governing the digital sphere.

In Kazakhstan, the main regulatory act aimed at protecting children is Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan No. 345 “On the Rights of a Child in the Republic of Kazakhstan” (2002), which establishes basic guarantees for the safety of minors and regulates their rights in the areas of education, health care and social security. However, in the context of digital transformation, it was necessary to develop additional protective measures aimed at preventing information threats. One such tool was the Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan No. 169-VІ “Protection of Children from Information Harmful to their Health and Development” (2018). It regulates minors’ access to Internet content and prohibits the dissemination of information promoting violence, drugs, pornography and unlawful behaviour among children (Zhumabekova et al. Reference Zhumabekova, Kegembayeva, Otarbayeva, Yelubayev and Abizhanov2024). Despite this, the availability of undesirable content remains a problem in Kazakhstan, as technical filtering mechanisms are not sufficiently developed and criminals find ways to circumvent blocks. Kazakhstan has amended the Criminal Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan (1997), toughening penalties for the distribution of child pornography and cyberbullying. This was an important step in the fight against crimes against minors, but human rights defenders note that legislation in this area needs further improvement (Filippov, Nasonkin, and Papacharalambous Reference Filippov, Nasonkin and Papacharalambous2019). One promising area is the implementation of the Concept of State Policy in the Field of Digital Security, which aims to improve digital literacy, develop technologies to protect children online and cooperate with international organizations to ensure cybersecurity.

In the US, the protection of minors in the digital environment is regulated by COPPA (Children’s Online Privacy Protection Rule (“COPPA”) 1998), which defines the rules for collecting and processing the personal data of minors. According to this law, Internet companies are required to obtain parental consent before collecting information about children under 13 years of age and to ensure strict protection of such data. However, experts note that many digital platforms find ways to circumvent the law, and teenagers often provide personal data themselves without fully understanding the potential consequences (Anderson Reference Anderson2024). In this regard, the US is actively developing a system of preventive measures, including educational programmes, such as the federal NetSmartz programme (National Center for Missing & Exploited Children 2025). It aims to teach children, parents and teachers the basics of digital security, methods of protection against cyber threats and the proper use of social media (Herawati et al. Reference Herawati, Mustofa, Sari, Mirsa, Widiyan and Astuti2024). However, despite the existence of such initiatives, online crime continues to grow, and criminals use new methods to influence minors, which requires a constant review of the digital security strategy.

In Germany, children’s digital safety is regulated by strict legal provisions. The Protection of Young Persons Act (2002) restricts minors’ access to harmful content and sets age limits for the use of digital platforms (Faraz et al. Reference Faraz, Mounsef, Raza and Willis2022). In contrast to Kazakhstan and the US, which focus on preventive measures and education, Germany emphasizes strict regulation of the Internet space and punishment of violators. One of the most important documents in this area is the General Data Protection Regulation (2016), which sets out strict rules for the processing of personal data, including the protection of children from unlawful data collection. The General Data Protection Regulation (2016) requires companies to obtain explicit parental consent to process the data of minors and imposes fines for violating privacy rules (Ke and Sudhir Reference Ke and Sudhir2022). However, despite the developed protection system, Germany, like other countries, faces cybersecurity challenges, including difficulties in controlling online grooming and the spread of child pornography, and suppressing criminal activity on the darknet.

An analysis of the effectiveness of existing measures shows that despite differences in approaches, no country has a completely perfect system for protecting minors in the digital space. Kazakhstan is focused on tightening legislation, but technical control mechanisms remain underdeveloped. In the US, much attention is paid to educational programmes, but criminals continue to find ways to circumvent protection. Germany uses strict legal mechanisms, but faces difficulties in monitoring online crime. Overall, gaps in legislation persist at the international level, and criminal technology is evolving more rapidly than protective mechanisms, necessitating additional efforts in digital security and the development of new methods to protect minors.

The Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) is a fundamental international document that regulates the protection of the rights of minors and sets standards for their safety in all spheres of life. Adopted in 1989 and ratified by most countries, it has become the most important legal instrument obliging states to protect children from all forms of violence, exploitation and abuse. The Convention enshrines key principles, including the child’s right to life, development, protection from discrimination, expression of opinion and participation in decisions concerning their future (Kilkelly and Pleysier Reference Kilkelly and Pleysier2023). In the context of ensuring child safety, the Convention plays an important role, as it establishes the obligations of states to develop and implement measures to protect children from all forms of physical, psychological and sexual abuse, trafficking, exploitation in labour and the harmful effects of the digital environment. Of particular importance is Article 19 of the Convention, which requires states to take all legislative, administrative, social and educational measures to protect children from all forms of violence, neglect, abuse or exploitation. This includes the development of legal mechanisms to prevent crimes against minors, the establishment of specialized child protection bodies, and the implementation of prevention programmes and educational initiatives. An important aspect is the child’s right to protection from economic and sexual exploitation, which is reflected in Articles 32 and 34, requiring states to take strict measures against child labour and sexual abuse (Simon, Luetzow, and Conte Reference Simon, Luetzow and Conte2020).

The Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) has had a significant impact on the national legislation of different countries, encouraging them to adapt their legal systems to international standards. In Kazakhstan, enactment of the Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan No. 345 “On the Rights of a Child in the Republic of Kazakhstan” (2002) and Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan No. 169-VІ “Protection of Children from Information Harmful to their Health and Development” (2018), as well as amendments to the Criminal Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan (1997) have led to toughened penalties for crimes against minors, including cyberbullying and distribution of child pornography. Kazakhstan has also introduced the Concept of State Policy in the Field of Digital Security, aimed at creating a safe online space for children (Akimzhanova and Ilyassova Reference Akimzhanova and Ilyassova2023).

In the US, the influence of the Convention can be seen in the adoption of laws such as COPPA (Children’s Online Privacy Protection Rule (“COPPA”) 1998), which regulates the collection and processing of personal data of minors. Additionally, programmes have been developed to prevent digital threats, such as the federal NetSmartz programme (National Center for Missing & Exploited Children 2025), which improves digital literacy for children and their parents, as well as programmes to combat child trafficking and sexual exploitation of minors. Although the US has not formally ratified the Convention, it has influenced the development of national child protection strategies.

Germany, as a party to the Convention, has integrated the provisions into national legislation by adopting the Protection of Young Persons Act (2002), which regulates minors’ access to potentially dangerous content, and by implementing the General Data Protection Regulation (2016), which provides strict control over the processing of children’s data (Bratasyuk Reference Bratasyuk2023). These measures are aimed at preventing online grooming, protecting minors from cyber threats and preventing child exploitation in the digital environment. In addition to national initiatives, several programmes and agreements based on the principles of the Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) are being implemented at the international level. These include the Optional Protocols to the Convention on the sale of children, child prostitution and pornography, and the involvement of children in armed conflict. International organizations, such as UNICEF, the World Health Organization and Interpol, are actively working to create programmes to prevent crimes against minors. UNICEF conducts global campaigns to combat violence against children, implements educational programmes on digital safety and assists countries in developing legal norms to protect minors (Swepston Reference Swepston and Swepston2012).

The influence of the Convention can also be seen in the activities of the European Court of Human Rights and the United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child, which consider cases related to violations of children’s rights and develop case law, encouraging states to more strictly comply with international obligations. However, despite the existence of such mechanisms, child protection remains problematic in several countries where there are no effective mechanisms to monitor the implementation of the Convention, and crimes against minors often go unpunished (Helland and Hollekim Reference Helland and Hollekim2023). Modern challenges related to digital threats, child trafficking and the rise of juvenile delinquency require a review of national strategies and strengthened international cooperation. The Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) remains a key instrument in shaping standards for the protection of minors; however, its effective implementation is contingent upon the active cooperation of states, international organizations and civil society.

Modern digital technologies not only create new opportunities for education and communication but also pose significant risks to minors. The threat of cyberbullying, online grooming, sexual exploitation, fraud and the spread of malicious content requires comprehensive measures from the state, society and business. In this regard, strengthening control over online threats is becoming one of the key tasks in preventing victimization. Given the rapid development of digital technologies, legislation in most countries lags behind real threats, which creates gaps in legal regulation and makes it difficult to combat crimes against children on the Internet. National laws should be adapted to modern realities, providing clear mechanisms for monitoring online content, controlling the personal data of minors and increasing the responsibility of Internet companies for the distribution of illegal and harmful content.

The development of digital safety education programmes is substantial in protecting minors. Many children and adolescents are unaware of the threats associated with the Internet, and parents and educators often lack sufficient knowledge of current online risks. Effective prevention of cybercrime is impossible without a comprehensive approach, which includes teaching children safe online behaviour, developing critical thinking skills, recognizing fraudulent schemes and protecting personal data. Parents should be aware of ways to monitor children’s online activity, and educators should integrate cybersecurity into educational programmes (Saglam, Miller, and Franqueira Reference Saglam, Miller and Franqueira2023). Several countries, including the US and Germany, already have government programmes aimed at enhancing digital literacy among minors. However, even in these countries, challenges remain in adapting educational strategies to the rapidly evolving digital environment.

Improving the effectiveness of cooperation between law enforcement agencies, information technology (IT) companies and non-government organizations is also an important area of the fight against crimes against minors. Cybercriminals employ sophisticated technology, data encryption, anonymous networks and the darknet, making them difficult to detect and prosecute. Without effective cooperation between government agencies, international organizations and technology corporations, it is impossible to create an effective system to combat online crime. In Germany and other European Union (EU) countries, a practice of close cooperation between law enforcement agencies and IT companies already exists, facilitating the swift identification of child exploitation cases, the removal of illegal content and the prosecution of perpetrators. In Kazakhstan and several other countries, this process is in its early stages, and a clear mechanism for data exchange between law enforcement agencies and digital platforms is necessary to identify and suppress online criminal activity effectively.

Adapting foreign experience into national prevention programmes can incorporate best practices for protecting minors and implement effective crime prevention strategies. The US has programmes aimed at improving digital literacy, Germany has strict legal mechanisms for regulating the digital environment and Kazakhstan has a digital security concept. A comparative analysis of these measures shows that the most effective strategy is a combination of preventive measures, legal regulation and international cooperation. National programmes should address the specifics of each country, while also utilizing international best practices to enhance the effectiveness of child protection.

One of the key problems in victimization prevention is the lack of public awareness of possible threats. Many parents do not perceive the digital environment as potentially dangerous and do not pay enough attention to protecting their children online. Additionally, law enforcement agencies often lack sufficient resources to investigate crimes committed in cyberspace. Another problem is the imperfection of legislation, which in several countries does not provide sufficient mechanisms to protect children from digital threats. This creates favourable conditions for criminals to exploit gaps in the legal system to commit crimes.

The prospects for developing a system to protect minors are closely tied to the introduction of comprehensive preventive measures, the modernization of legislation, the advancement of personal data protection technologies and the enhancement of control over the digital space. A crucial area is the establishment of specialized cyber units within law enforcement agencies to investigate crimes against minors online. It is also necessary to strengthen measures to prevent the spread of harmful content and develop mechanisms for rapid response to threats related to cybercrime. To improve preventive measures, it is necessary to develop a comprehensive strategy that includes strengthening state control over Internet platforms, improving educational programmes and active cooperation between different sectors of society. International cooperation, the exchange of data and best practices, the introduction of new technologies for monitoring and controlling online threats, and strict legislative regulation will create a safer environment for minors and reduce crime in the digital space.