Discussions of affinities between Greece and Anatolia via language and culture have seen increased interest in the past two decades, particularly of less well-studied periods. The field continues to expand thanks to new (and syntheses of older) data from archaeological excavations; the adoption of new interpretative frameworks explaining cultural contacts; ongoing linguistic work; and the editing/compilation of key texts into single volumes. New approaches to the eastern roots of/influences on Greek epic are also notable, particularly those looking at Anatolian contributions. The present volume continues this trend.
While the focus here is linguistic and philological, several authors have also consulted archaeological and historical evidence to deepen their discussions. Accordingly, the papers range from extensive treatments of different types of data to more pithy analyses of language use and phonology. This is in part reflective of the evidence itself, as some languages are well attested and others far less so. With regard to smaller corpora, comprising languages spoken in the first millennium bce, scholars have also had to contend with issues stemming from etic (i.e. Greek) perspectives on the peoples who spoke them, though such Hellenocentric frameworks are nowadays considered largely passé.
Bianconi's chapter sets out the volume's aims and provides a concise yet comprehensive overview of the history of comparative studies between Greek and Anatolian languages, supported by an extensive bibliography. Though somewhat outside of the scope of the discussion, the role of archaeology has also been significant (as noted above), as various excavations in western Anatolia and the Aegean have contributed to discussions of culture and language, and continue to do so. Nevertheless, the main interpretative/research paradigms over the past century are well treated, from E. Forrer's identification of Greek names in Hittite texts; to the existence of an Aegeo-Anatolian Sprachbund; the influence of substrate languages on Indo-European ones; and possible outcomes of language and cultural contacts.
Chapter 2 deals with specific phraseology governing oaths sworn between two parties to maintain a pact. P. Dardano argues that examples from Homer have affinity with those from the (predominantly Bronze Age) Anatolian and Semitic spheres. In the Bronze Age, this is logical, given the international character of various interactions across the Near East and Mediterranean. For such agreements to be successfully ratified and held between parties from different cultural/linguistic backgrounds, some level of uniformity in content and phraseology may be expected. To what extent such conventions persisted into the first millennium bce is less clear. Yet, Dardano's premise is cogent if we take a broader view: following the dissolution of Bronze Age political systems, communities underwent significant changes in their social and political reconfiguration. The persistence of formulae of ancient oaths may have constituted important cultural artefacts that acted to strengthen and legitimate oaths as well as the social/political position of those administering them.
Chapter 3 examines a syntactical construction present in Homeric Greek, Hittite and Hieroglyphic Luwian composed of finite verbs of motion (past tense) that set up a durative action completed by a verbal noun (infinitive [Greek] or supine [Hittite/Luwian]). J.L. García Ramón proposes two possibilities: the Greek variant, being quite idiosyncratic and restricted to epic, was borrowed from Anatolian languages; or it is a relic of earlier Greek, surviving the diachronic accretion and erosion of linguistic strata. The former view is favoured, and this sets up historical and social questions that remain to be addressed – for example what kind of conditions existed that led Greek poets to adapt an Anatolian syntactical calque into their repertoire? Can we pinpoint the donor language? Another point: given its poetic status in Greek, it would have been interesting to consider its use in view of metrical considerations.
Chapters 4 and 5 discuss phonology in Iron Age languages, examining the values of specific letters in the Carian and Lydian alphabets respectively. Carian in particular presents many difficulties due to its small corpus of brief inscriptions, though the discovery of some longer texts (including bilinguals) in more recent times has helped refine interpretations and situate the language within the west Luwic sphere. This has allowed targeted comparison with other Anatolian languages, which H.C. Melchert does here, to discuss the status of the phonemes [u] and [y], and whether the latter represents a fronting of the former. In cautiously arguing that it is a possibility, the paper sets up a challenge for further work to be undertaken.
In Chapter 5 N. Oettinger debates the phonemic value of k in Lydian, its possible development from the word-initial laryngeals h2 and h3, and what Lydian loans into Greek may contribute to the discussion. The academic debate over the residual presence of these laryngeals in Lydian remains unresolved, making the topic a work in progress. While the contributions of Melchert and Oettinger underscore the doggedly incremental nature of research on fragmentary languages, the papers nevertheless show the value of revisiting existing data from alternative angles.
In Chapter 6 R. Oreshko looks at the origin of deities with the relatively homophonous names of Kubaba, Kubeleya, Kufaws and Κύβεβος, worshipped across the wider Anatolian geography. He argues that they have less to do with one another than their names suggest, and builds on earlier discussions that also viewed the origins and relationships as more complex (e.g. L. Roller, Cult of Anatolian Cybele [1999]). Regarding the Phrygian Kubeleya and her connection with mountains, it is possible to associate the Iron Age cultic activity at extramural sanctuaries with antecedent Hittite/Luwian traditions, which often placed emphasis on rocky/mountainous locales, pools and springs. Whether the evidence is demonstrative of Balkan/south-east European components is another matter, as this is related to the problematic issue of Phrygian migrations mentioned in Herodotus and subsequent cultural contributions.
I. Rutherford in Chapter 7 discusses diplomatic marriage as a catalyst for ideological transfer in Aegean–Anatolian relations in the Late Bronze Age, expanding on ideas he presented in Hittite Texts and Origins of Greek Religion (2020). This dynamic arguably depended on the status of women in the respective cultures, the specific nature of the relationship being crafted and its implications for state affairs, as suggested by the examples discussed. We know little about Mycenaean and western Anatolian queens compared to their Hittite counterparts, which could help us articulate the outcomes resulting from their marriages across different cultural spheres. It would have been interesting to see some discussion of the Alaksandu Treaty, which contains pertinent information regarding the status of offspring from different wives and concubines, and the implications this may have had on the topic at hand. The figure of Alaksandu may be of significance as well – himself perhaps being the issue of Ahhiyawan and Anatolian parents.
Like Oreshko, Z. Simon in Chapter 8 deals with reconciling evidence of something seemingly similar, but which, upon closer scrutiny, suggests disparate origins. He discusses the Mopsos names, which occur in Greek, Phrygian and Anatolian onomastic traditions, and argues that they existed independently in Greek and Anatolian (Proto-Lydian and Luwian). The Proto-Lydian hypothesis is an intriguing one, though, as Simon notes, it does not give much clarity to the early Lydians and their language, which would demand additional textual/epigraphic and archaeological data.
Chapter 9 offers a comparative discussion of textual and epigraphic evidence in the Bronze Age Anatolian and Mycenaean spheres respectively, with a focus on the ‘missing’ genres in each and the implications this has for the materiality of particular genres of text in Anatolia and the Aegean, particularly regarding the use of perishables. One fascinating aspect of W. Waal's perceptive discussion concerns the use of palm leaves in the Aegean, which may have implications for the adaptation of the West Semitic alphabet in the Early Iron Age. The expression φοινίκεια γράμματα may have originally referred to palm leaves, giving a clue to one medium that played a role in the creation of an unattested prototype alphabet with vowels (cf. W. Waal, Aegean Studies [2018]). The chapter ends with an addendum on the Uluburun writing tablets; M. Dillo suggests that the incised signs along the border of the right board represent Mycenaean numerals, further highlighting the value of revisiting seemingly well-trodden ground.
The book ends with a discussion of the possible origins of the somewhat obscure Greek war god Enyalius. I. Yakubovich proposes an Anatolian source, perhaps an adaptation of the Anatolian title ẽnwaλas (denoting an honorific) associated with Luwian deities such as Santa, also a war god. Though Yakubovich focuses on etymological derivation, he surmises that Mycenaean–west Anatolian contact may have resulted in the transfer. While he does not examine the mechanisms under which the transfer took place, if we consider Rutherford's paper and the temporal context, it is not inconceivable that it was an outcome of politicking between Mycenaean and Anatolian parties.
In terms of editing, this volume is generally fine, though there is a sprinkling of grammatical and typographical errors in the English throughout (the ancient languages have been handled with care, however). Inconsistencies are frequent in the transliterated spelling and the use of diacritics in ancient names, sometimes within a single chapter. Moreover, the various errors are not evenly distributed across the book: this would suggest that it was up to the individual authors to make a final edit of their papers, rather than Brill and/or the volume editors. Likewise, the volume's sole illustration (the Uluburun tablets in Chapter 8) is somewhat blurry. For a book of this price, something better is to be expected, and the adherence to a uniform spelling standard would have made for a more professional look.
Overall, the volume is a welcome inclusion into the ranks of studies on Graeco-Anatolian relations, which increasingly seek to incorporate diverse types of data, new interpretative frameworks and revise long-standing interpretations. The papers offer thoughtful discussions and are provided with generous footnotes and bibliographies. It is evident from the volume (and the wider state of research) that existing evidence may belie the extent of linguistic influence/transfer, particularly in the first millennium bce. This is arguably due to the standards of particular textual genres. As the introduction notes, the ancient Near East and Mediterranean were replete with multifaceted contacts over long periods of time, giving scholars ample data and case studies to pursue multi-disciplinary approaches. In the current academic climate of hyper-specialisation, volumes such as this underscore the value of embracing more wide-ranging perspectives, disciplines and interpretative frameworks.
