Inside Chinese Theater is Nancy Yunhwa Rao’s second book, contributing a new scope to her work studying transpacific music with a focus on Chinese theaters and Cantonese operas in the nineteenth-century United States. The book chronicles over four decades of the development of Chinese theater, beginning with the early illustration of Chinese actors published in 1845. It details the arrival of the first Chinese troupe, Tong Hook Tong, in San Francisco in 1852 and the circulation of Chinese theaters throughout California’s interior and San Francisco, and continues through 1893, when a permanent Chinese theater opened in Boston after the establishment of Chinese theaters in San Francisco, Philadelphia, and New York. The narrative of Chinese theater’s development is divided into four phases: the first three primarily on the West Coast, while the final phase occurred on the East Coast.

Although the Chinese were the first Asian ethnic group to arrive in the United States, doing so in the late eighteenth century, significant waves of Chinese immigration did not occur until the mid-nineteenth century. This remarkable migration was closely tied to the allure of the California Gold Rush, which created an image of the United States as a burgeoning global power. In contrast, the stark decline of the Qing dynasty was highlighted by its defeat by the British in the First Opium War (1839–1842), marking the beginning of what would be known as the Century of Humiliation for China. The Qing emperor was forced to sign a series of unequal treaties that mandated the opening of domestic markets to foreign trade. Guangzhou, located in the Pearl River Delta of Guangdong Province in southeastern China, played a crucial role in this historical transition, particularly after the Opium War. From 1757 to 1842, Guangzhou was the only port open to international trade. As a result, people living in Guangzhou had deeper interactions with foreigners than those residents of inland regions; some even received a Western education at missionary schools. After the Opium War, many Chinese from this area migrated to California, establishing the first Chinese community in San Francisco. Many individuals traveled across the interior of California to engage in high-risk jobs, such as mining and constructing the transcontinental railroad (Chapters 1–2). Chinese workers brought with them not only their aspirations but also their rich cultural traditions, including Cantonese opera. These performances contributed to the earliest Asian American soundscapes in the American West before the arrival of other Asian ethnic groups. For comparison, it was not until 1867 that the Japanese were permitted to travel abroad after Emperor Meiji lifted the Seclusion Policy and initiated the Restoration.

U.S. music history has often erased the transpacific connections in music, primarily due to an emphasis on the transatlantic soundscapes, such as the European instrumental, vocal, and operatic genres, that dominated before the digital era. Additionally, deep-rooted beliefs in orientalism and colonialism have led many Westerners to evaluate Chinese operas unfairly, often dismissing them as inferior or barbaric. Such opinions ignore the fact that China is one of the oldest civilizations in human history, with a rich heritage of distinct cultural productions. Chinese theater, in particular, has established an entertainment format and a social platform. Chinese ritual operas frequently depict immortal classics and have been regularly performed in theaters and temples. These cultural traditions were brought to the United States by early Chinese migrants, significantly shaping U.S. mass culture. What were the Chinese opera repertoires that were commonly performed in the nineteenth-century United States? What were the characteristics of the stage designs, theatrical customs, and orchestration of these operas? How did these productions enrich the diverse transpacific soundscapes? Who were the prominent figures and fans of the time? What were the financial aspects for Chinese theaters, including revenue and performers’ earnings? In the face of anti-Chinese legislative efforts, how did the Chinese community preserve their cultural roots and develop their Chinese American identities? How did intellectuals and operagoers respond to these performances? These intriguing questions and more are explored in Rao’s book.

Rao reconstructs the history of U.S. music in the nineteenth century by vividly bringing to life previously hidden scenes from Chinese theater. She demonstrates profound empathy for Chinese American communities and the sociopolitical challenges faced by Chinese migrants. Through her work, she provides a thoughtful examination of the connections between religious practices and Cantonese ritual operas, emphasizing the cultural significance of Chinese theaters in the United States. Rao remarks that these ritual spirits were akin to food, as they offered a sense of protection for Chinese laborers, particularly for workers engaged in work with a “high-risk of accidents, illness and death” (64). Cantonese operas transformed into celestial dramas, attracting mixed-race audiences who embraced the operatic culture. In San Francisco, operas gained mainstream recognition, with Chinese troupes performing alongside Italian operas at prominent venues like Maguire’s Opera House. These performances elevated Chinese theaters to highbrow artistry, helping San Francisco become a cosmopolitan city infused with diverse cultural influences from both Europe and Asia (Chapters 2–3).

At its height, San Francisco boasted four permanent commercial Chinese theaters (Chapters 4–6). The first, Hing Chuen Yuen, was established in 1868 on Jackson Street (North) just before the signing of the Burlingame Treaty, which promised free travel between the United States and China. Rao notes the observation made by Thomas W. Knox that “Occidentals generally seek the theatre on their first night on shore, and the same is the case with Orientals” (91). This comment highlighted a shared diasporic sentiment between Occidentals and Orientals and is significant, considering it was made during the height of the colonial era. The second theater, Sing Ping Yuen, opened in 1874 on Jackson Street (South) and became known for producing progressive Cantonese operas that incorporated local Chinese influences and elements from U.S. theaters. This fusion resulted in productions that reflected life in California, showcasing how Cantonese operas evolved beyond traditional Chinese forms to express Chinese American identities. The third and fourth theaters, Luk Suhn Fung and Donn Quai Yuen, were both established on Washington Street in the late 1870s, a time marked by increasing racial hostility following the enactment of the Chinese Exclusion Law in 1882. The expansion of Chinese theaters during this tumultuous period showcased the resilience of the Chinese community and challenged the negative stereotypes often associated with it. On the West Coast, derogatory stereotypes have been persistent. Rao references notes from Wong Chin Foo, who introduced and popularized the term “Chinese American” in 1883, to emphasize the racial confrontations and challenges encountered in establishing Chinese theaters in New York. This endeavor ultimately succeeded in 1889, after thirty-six years of struggle, when the Tong Hook Tong troupe made its debut in the city, although they received a lukewarm reception. The success of their effort can be attributed to the significant support from wealthy Chinese merchants who backed theatrical engagement. The development marks the rise of Chinese Americans into the upper class, as newer generations came to appreciate and uphold the values of Chinese traditions (Chapter 10).

The establishment of Chinese theaters in the United States was closely linked to the constraints imposed by anti-Chinese movements, particularly as white workers used the political system to justify their discrimination against Chinese immigrants. Various ordinances, such as curfews and increased tax burdens, were enacted to reinforce this discrimination. Rao addresses the issue of white racial prejudice with great care, actively resisting the replication of racial stereotypes about the Chinese. She explores U.S. publications that provided neutral perspectives on Chinese Americans, including the collaborative works of painter Theodore Wores and writer Henry Burden McDowell in an article titled “The Chinese Theater” published in Century Illustrated Magazine (Chapter 9). Its analysis, along with that of others, demonstrates that Chinese theaters were recognized as significant cultural productions. Additionally, Rao confirms that the influence of Chinese theater extended beyond U.S. borders by analyzing its inclusion in the Paris Universal Exposition of 1889. Its implicit presence at the Exposition acknowledged the impact of Chinese theater on classical Vietnamese opera, known as hát tuông. These developments inspired research in sonic ethnology, culminating in a special event hosted by the American Folklore Society in Boston featuring Chinese theater. Rao brings to light the vibrant discourse surrounding Chinese theaters and demonstrates how Chinese operas significantly shaped U.S. music history.

Investigating a long-hidden history is a challenging task. Rao has addressed this difficulty effectively through her thorough studies of both English and Chinese publications. The results offer a fresh perspective on U.S. cultural soundscapes. The transpacific movement of Cantonese operas represents only a small part of U.S. music history, suggesting that there is much more to explore. Wong Chin Foo expressed, “I think the greatest happiness we have is the variety of sights, ideas, and peculiarities; the more astonishing, the better” (231). The significance of studying transpacific U.S. music history is particularly relevant today, as the global growth of the digital economy highlights the sonic connections between the East and the West. Rao’s engaging narrative calls for a comprehensive reevaluation of U.S. music history to include these transformative transpacific influences. This book serves as a valuable resource for advanced undergraduate and graduate seminars focused on U.S. music history. Additionally, it will inspire researchers in music and cultural studies, sociology, and history to examine often-overlooked cultural soundscapes. Ultimately, Rao’s work not only enhances our understanding of Chinese theaters in the United States but also opens new avenues for exploration, encouraging a deeper appreciation of the intricate interplay between culture, race, and performance in shaping the multifaceted identities in the United States.