Hostname: page-component-74656f9884-j7cmm Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2026-11-10T07:20:59.850Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

In vitro activity of clindamycin, doxycycline, and trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole against clinical isolates of β-hemolytic Streptococcus spp. via BD Phoenix and broth microdilution

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  15 December 2023

Christian Cho ,
Ryan K Shields ,
Ellen G Kline ,
Thomas L. Walsh ,
Chelsea E. Jones ,
Karen Kasarda ,
Kelly Stefano ,
Matthew A. Moffa Open the ORCID record for Matthew A. Moffa [Opens in a new window]  and
Derek N. Bremmer Open the ORCID record for Derek N. Bremmer [Opens in a new window]
Christian Cho
Affiliation:
Department of Pharmacy, Allegheny Health Network, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
Ryan K Shields
Affiliation:
Antibiotic Management Program, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, PA, USA Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA XDR Pathogens Laboratory, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
Ellen G Kline
Affiliation:
Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
Thomas L. Walsh
Affiliation:
Division of Infectious Diseases, Allegheny Health Network, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
Chelsea E. Jones
Affiliation:
Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
Karen Kasarda
Affiliation:
Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Allegheny Health Network, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
Kelly Stefano
Affiliation:
Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Allegheny Health Network, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
Matthew A. Moffa
Affiliation:
Division of Infectious Diseases, Allegheny Health Network, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
Derek N. Bremmer*
Affiliation:
Department of Pharmacy, Allegheny Health Network, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
*
Corresponding author: Derek N. Bremmer; Email: Derek.Bremmer@ahn.org

Abstract

We tested 85 isolates of β-hemolytic Streptococcus spp. against trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (TMP/SMX), clindamycin, and doxycycline by broth microdilution (BMD) and BD Phoenix. Susceptibility rates via BMD for TMP/SMX, clindamycin, and doxycycline were 100%, 85.5%, and 56.6%, respectively. TMP/SMX is a potential monotherapy agent for β-hemolytic Streptococcus skin and soft tissue infections.

Information

Type
Concise Communication
Information
Antimicrobial Stewardship & Healthcare Epidemiology , Volume 3 , Issue 1 , 2023 , e238
Creative Commons
Creative Common License - CCCreative Common License - BY
This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution licence (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted re-use, distribution and reproduction, provided the original article is properly cited.
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2023. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of The Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America

Introduction

The Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) guidelines suggest that β-hemolytic Streptococcus spp. and Staphylococcus aureus are the predominant causes of skin and soft tissue infections (SSTIs). Reference Stevens, Bisno and Chambers1 While the presence of purulence is an indication of S. aureus, clinicians frequently provide empiric antimicrobial therapy targeting both β-hemolytic Streptococcus spp. and S. aureus. Reference Walsh, Bremmer and Moffa2 Historically, a beta-lactam would adequately cover both, but increasing rates of community acquired methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) have precluded this approach. Alternatively, clindamycin has been utilized to target both pathogens, but rates of resistance have increased. Reference Francois Watkins, McGee and Schrag3 Tetracyclines and trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (TMP/SMX) are noted to demonstrate unreliable activity against β-hemolytic Streptococcus spp. on the basis of several in vitro studies showing TMP/SMX resistance. Reference Stevens, Bisno and Chambers1 These findings may be related to high thymidine content of the test media that was previously employed and is known to inhibit the activity of TMP/SMX. Reference Ferone, Bushby and Burchall4 Since, Mueller Hinton broth has been standardized with low levels of thymidine. 5 With this in mind, we set out to evaluate susceptibility rates of TMP/SMX, clindamycin, and doxycycline against clinical isolates of β-hemolytic Streptococcus spp. by automated and standard susceptibility testing methods.

Methods

Eighty-five β-hemolytic Streptococcus spp. isolates were identified from January 1 2018 to June 30 2018 as part of routine workup in the microbiology department. Antimicrobial susceptibilities are not performed on β-hemolytic Streptococcus spp. Identification was verified utilizing matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF) on the Becton Dickinson Bruker MALDI Biotyper CA system. All isolates were stored in nutrient media at −20°C and subcultured thrice before testing on the BD Phoenix SMIC-101 Streptococcus panel. Of note, the BD Phoenix SMIC-101 panel is not validated for the combination of β-hemolytic Streptococcus spp. and TMP/SMX. These results were recorded for research purposes only and not recorded in the patients’ medical record.

Next, we determined MICs by broth microdilution (BMD), according to CLSI guidelines, for TMP/SMX (MP Biomedicals, testing range 0.06/1.14–64/1216 µg/mL), clindamycin hydrochloride (UPMC Pharmacy, 0.015–16 µg/mL), and doxycycline hyclate (MP Biomedicals, 0.008–8 µg/mL). Briefly, organisms were tested in cation adjusted Mueller Hinton broth containing 5% lysed horse blood and incubated at 35°C for 20–24 h. Isolates were tested in duplicate, triplicated if initial tests varied by greater than one doubling dilution. Quality control strain S. pneumoniae ATCC 49619 was used throughout. Results were interpreted according to the 2020 CLSI criteria for clindamycin and tetracycline with susceptibility breakpoints of ≤0.25 µg/mL and ≤2 µg/mL, respectively. 6 EUCAST interpretative criteria were used for doxycycline and TMP/SMX with susceptibility breakpoints of ≤1 µg/mL and ≤1 µg/mL, respectively. 7

Discordant results between BD Phoenix and BMD were categorized into major and very major errors, and rates of essential agreement (EA) and categorical agreement (CA) were determined using established definitions. 8 Major errors were defined as false-resistant results, and very major errors were defined as false-susceptible results, based on current CSLI and EUCAST breakpoints as defined above. 6,7 It should be noted that the comparison of tetracycline from BD Phoenix to doxycycline by BMD may result in some inaccuracy as they are different agents within the same class.

Results

Of the 85 isolates tested, the most common species identified was S. pyogenes (n = 49), followed by S. agalactiae (n = 20) and S. dysgalactiae (n = 16). Using the BD Phoenix SMIC-101 Streptococcus panel, susceptibility rates to TMP/SMX, clindamycin, and tetracycline were reported as 44.7%, 62.4%, and 61.2%, respectively. The corresponding rates of susceptibility by BMD testing were 100%, 85.5%, and 56.6%, respectively (Table 1). The TMP/SMX, clindamycin, and doxycycline MIC50/MIC90 via BMD were 0.12/0.25 µg/mL, 0.03/>16 µg/mL, and 0.12/8 µg/mL, respectively. All beta-lactams, linezolid, and vancomycin were susceptible at 100%, while erythromycin (45.9%), levofloxacin (94.1%), and moxifloxacin (88.2%) had variable susceptibility. Not all isolates that were tested by BD Phoenix were viable for BMD testing.

Table 1.

Susceptibility results

a Results for beta-hemolytic strep and tmp/smx are for research use only.

b Not all isolates were viable for BMD testing.

Rates of major errors for clindamycin and doxycycline testing by the BD Phoenix system were 18.4% and 0%, respectively. Very major errors were 0% and 3.6%, respectively (Table 2).

Table 2.

Categorical and essential agreement of BD Phoenix compared to BMD

Note. TMP/SMX, trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole.

a Performed for research purposes only. TMP/SMX is not FDA-approved for β-hemolytic Streptococcus spp.

b Not all isolates were viable for BMD testing.

There were slight differences in susceptibility based on Streptococcus spp. by BMD. For S. pyogenes (n = 49), TMP/SMX (100%) and clindamycin (91.5%) had high rates of susceptibility, but doxycycline (75.5%) was lower. Similarly, S. dysgalactiae (n = 16) had a similar trend of TMP/SMX (100%), clindamycin (92.3%), and doxycycline (57.1%). S. agalactiae (n = 20) had high TMP/SMX (100%) susceptibilities, but clindamycin (62.5%) and doxycycline (10%) were lower.

Discussion

Our in vitro analysis found β-hemolytic Streptococcus spp. to be 100% susceptible to TMP/SMX by the gold standard BMD method. This data supports the possibility of using TMP/SMX monotherapy for empiric SSTI treatment targeting β-hemolytic Streptococcus spp. Bowen and colleagues performed a randomized controlled trial including pediatrics with impetigo who were given TMP/SMX or benzathine penicillin. There was no treatment differences between groups and of interest, 90% of patients in this trial had cultured S. pyogenes. Reference Bowen, Tong and Andrews9 This, along with clinical and other in vitro data supporting this notion, has been sufficient for our antimicrobial stewardship team to adjust our SSTI treatment algorithm for such infections at our institution. Reference Bowen, Tong and Andrews9 As the IDSA guidelines suggest, tetracyclines remain an unreliable option for empiric coverage of a β-hemolytic Streptococcus spp. given the high rates of resistance.

In our analysis, clindamycin had an overall susceptibility rate of 85.5% by BMD. Interestingly, there was a high rate, 18.4%, of major errors indicating that the BD Phoenix reported isolates resistant when they were truly susceptible by the gold standard BMD. Regardless, we find it interesting that clindamycin was shown to be a less reliable empiric drug for the treatment of β-hemolytic Streptococcus spp. than TMP/SMX. There are broad clinical implications for the declining rate of clindamycin susceptibilities. One area where this may make a large impact is for surgical prophylaxis where many patients who are considered beta-lactam allergic receive clindamycin as an alternative. It is well described that patients who receive non-beta-lactam agents have higher rates of surgical site infections. Reference Blumenthal, Ryan, Li, Lee, Kuhlen and Shenoy10 This may be an even more pronounced effect if targeting S. agalactiae, common for obstetrics, as other published reports are consistent with our current study, reporting significant rates of clindamycin resistance in this species. Reference Francois Watkins, McGee and Schrag3 It would appear that S. agalactiae resistance to doxycycline is also significantly more common than other β-hemolytic Streptococcus spp. For treatment or prophylaxis against a β-hemolytic Streptococcus spp., practitioners may want to refrain from using empiric clindamycin or doxycycline.

In conclusion, TMP/SMX was universally susceptible against our clinical isolates of β-hemolytic Streptococcus spp. using the gold standard BMD. Our study indicates that TMP/SMX is a potential monotherapy agent for the treatment of SSTIs caused by β-hemolytic Streptococcus spp., while clindamycin and particularly doxycycline may be less reliable empiric options.

Acknowledgments

None.

Author contribution

Christian Cho – Conceptualization, methodology, formal analysis;

Ryan K Shields – Methodology, writing – review and editing, supervision;

Ellen G Kline – Methodology, writing – review and editing, supervision;

Thomas L. Walsh – Methodology, writing – review and editing, supervision;

Chelsea E. Jones – Methodology, writing – review and editing;

Karen Kasarda – Methodology, writing – review and editing;

Kelly Stefano – Methodology, writing – review and editing;

Matthew A. Moffa – Methodology, writing – review and editing;

Derek N. Bremmer – Conceptualization, methodology, formal analysis, writing – original draft preparation.

Financial support

None.

Competing interests

All authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.

References

Stevens, DL, Bisno, AL, Chambers, HF, et al. Practice guidelines for the diagnosis and management of skin and soft tissue infections: 2014 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 2014;59:e10–52. doi: 10.1093/cid/ciu444.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Walsh, TL, Bremmer, DN, Moffa, MA, et al. Effect of antimicrobial stewardship program guidance on the management of uncomplicated skin and soft tissue infections in hospitalized adults. Mayo Clin Proc Innov Qual Outcomes 2017;1:91–99. doi: 10.1016/j.mayocpiqo.2017.04.002.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Francois Watkins, LK, McGee, L, Schrag, SJ, et al. Epidemiology of invasive group b streptococcal infections among nonpregnant adults in the United States, 2008-2016. JAMA Intern Med 2019;179:479–488. doi: 10.1001/jamainternmed.2018.7269.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ferone, R, Bushby, SR, Burchall, JJ, et al. Identification of Harper-Cawston factor as thymidine phosphorylase and removal from media of substances interfering with susceptibility testing to sulfonamides and diaminopyrimidines. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1975;7:91–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. Protocols for Evaluating Dehydrated Mueller-Hinton Agar; Approved Standard, 2nd edition. Wayne, PA: Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute; 2006.Google Scholar
CLSI. Performance Standards for Antimicrobail Susceptibility Testing, 30th edition. Wayne, PA: Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute; 2020.Google Scholar
The European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing. Breakpoint tables for interpretation of MICs and zone diameters. Version 11.0, 2021. http://www.eucast.org.Google Scholar
FDA. Antimicrobial Susceptibility Test (AST) Systems – Class II Special Controls Guidance for Industry and FDA. FDA.gov, 2018, https://www.fda.gov/medical-devices/guidance-documents-medical-devices-and-radiation-emitting-products/antimicrobial-susceptibility-test-ast-systems-class-ii-special-controls-guidance-industry-and-fda.Google Scholar
Bowen, AC, Tong, SY, Andrews, RM, et al. Short-course oral co-trimoxazole versus intramuscular benzathine benzylpenicillin for impetigo in a highly endemic region: an open-label, randomised, controlled, non-inferiority trial. Lancet 2014;384:2132–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blumenthal, KG, Ryan, EE, Li, Y, Lee, H, Kuhlen, JL, Shenoy, ES. The impact of a reported penicillin allergy on surgical site infection risk. Clin Infect Dis 2018;66:329–336. doi: 10.1093/cid/cix794.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Figure 0

Table 1. Susceptibility results

Figure 1

Table 2. Categorical and essential agreement of BD Phoenix compared to BMD