2.1 The official languages

As official languages, te reo Māori and New Zealand Sign Language (NZSL) occupy a special position in New Zealand. The official status, and, in the case of te reo Māori, its indigeneity and the 1840 Treaty of Waitangi between Māori and the British Crown, the founding document of New Zealand, are touchstones for the Māori and Deaf communities in requesting government attention and support. At the same time, both official languages are endangered, with shrinking pools of users (Stats, Reference Stats2014a). Efforts to maintain or revitalise them are focusing more than ever on the role of families (Bright, Barnes, & Hutchings, Reference Bright, Barnes and Hutchings2013; McKee & Smiler, Reference McKee, Smiler, Macalister and Mirvahedi2017).

2.2 Community languages

The maintenance and provision of community languages is a focus of the Royal Society of New Zealand paper (RSNZ, 2013). Significant immigration from the Pacific Islands means that many young New Zealanders grow up with languages such as Samoan, Cook Island Māori or Tongan as part of their heritage. However, rates of attrition of Pacific heritage languages are among the highest of all community languages spoken in New Zealand (Ministry of Social Development, 2010), and provision of bilingual education is fragmented and under-funded. In some cases, for example, the Cook Islands, Niue and Tokelau, this is especially critical, because the large majority of people originating from these countries actually live in New Zealand (Walrond, Reference Walrond2015).

The Ministry of Education's Pasifika Education Plan 2013–2017 sets targets such as increasing the number of centres offering immersion in a Pasifika language for 50% or more of class time (Ministry of Education, 2013b). The number of schools offering classes in Pacific languages and cultures, either as an immersion option (43 mainly primary schools) or as a subject option (62 mostly secondary schools) has increased steadily in recent years (Education Counts, 2017).

More recent large-scale migration from East and South Asia, particularly China, the Philippines, India and Korea, combined with refugee intakes from Africa and the Middle East, has led to the existence of many other language communities, particularly in the larger cities. Support for the learning of their languages from pre-school to tertiary, within formal institutions and in community settings, can be found in some quarters, but these languages have less salience in the discourse about language learning than te reo Māori, English and NZSL – and fewer resources (de Bres, Reference de Bres2015). There has been little sense of government obligation to support them.

2.3 Additional languages

As indicated already, monolingualism remains endemic in New Zealand. Nevertheless, the learning and teaching of additional languages is an established part of the school curriculum. Alongside te reo Māori and sometimes Samoan, languages as various as French, German, Spanish, Japanese and Chinese are offered by many schools, from the upper years of primary school (sometimes earlier) and throughout secondary school. In addition, adult learners may have access to polytechnic, university and evening class courses as well as online learning.

Since the designation of Learning Languages as one of eight official learning areas in the revised curriculum introduced by the Ministry of Education (MoE) in 2007, there has been progress in the provision of language teaching in primary and intermediate schools. However, although the Ministry expects schools to provide opportunities for students in Years 7 to 10 (11+ to 14+ years of age) to learn at least one language in addition to English, governments have shied away from making language learning compulsory. Research reported in the review section discusses possible reasons for declining numbers of enrolments in the learning of additional languages over the period under study.

2.4 Access to English language

One of the key concerns in RSNZ (2013) was ‘Access to English for the whole community’ (p. 1). Groups for whom this is significant include former refugees, migrants and international students.

The period of this review, 2013–2017, covers the ongoing international refugee crisis, to which the New Zealand government responded by increasing the intake of refugees. By 2020, the annual quota accepted through the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees will double to 1,500. Support services to promote successful settlement, which include English-language provision, will also increase (Ardern & Lees-Galloway, Reference Ardern and Lees-Galloway2018). General migration to New Zealand has also increased. Not all migrants are English-language learners (ELLs), but China and the Philippines are among the top source countries for permanent residence approval (MBIE, 2018). The numbers of international students coming to New Zealand have also grown (MBIE, 2018) and they continue to be a significant cohort in tertiary institutions and secondary schools.

The compulsory education system is the most significant source of opportunities for young people to learn English. Migrant and refugee students attend school under the same conditions as New Zealand citizens, and schools receive government funding to provide additional support for those with high English-language needs. At tertiary level, universities generally offer pre-degree English courses and make some, though often limited, provision for EAL students at degree level. Public polytechnics, private tertiary institutions and community providers staffed by both professional and volunteer teachers supplement English-language provision for adults. For most permanent residents, this is provided under the same conditions of partial fee payment as for domestic students. For former refugees, there is some free English-language provision, generally closely allied to ongoing education or employment.

4.1 Using, learning and teaching te reo Māori

Research into the use, learning and teaching of te reo Māori has grown noticeably in volume and variety since the last country survey was published. Much of this is conducted within a Kaupapa Māori framework (Hoskins & Jones, Reference Hoskins and Jones2017), which envisions Māori overcoming the colonial legacy and ‘thriving as Māori’ (Durie, Reference Durie, Hoskins and Jones2017, p. 2). This research is carried out within the context of a Māori world view, in accordance with Māori values (Hoskins & Jones, Reference Hoskins and Jones2017).

4.2 NZSL

Like te reo Māori, NZSL was found to be under threat from demographic factors reducing the number of users and from the complexities of intergenerational transmission (McKee & Smiler, Reference McKee, Smiler, Macalister and Mirvahedi2017). McKee (Reference McKee2015) examined the impact which the recognition of NZSL as an official language in 2006 has had on its vitality. She concluded that the expectations raised in the deaf community by official recognition for better planning and resourcing had only partly been fulfilled, and that in light of the reducing numbers of users, this ran the risk of being ‘too little and too late’ (McKee, Reference McKee2015, p. 493). As is the case for te reo Māori, there are both optimistic and pessimistic views of the future for NZSL among its users.

McKee and Smiler (Reference McKee, Smiler, Macalister and Mirvahedi2017) examined the effects of family language policy at macro-, meso- and micro-levels, drawing on the experiences of ten individual families. The authors found that the availability of cochlear implants and the desire of hearing parents to pass on their own linguistic identity to their deaf children, combined with limited support for deaf children in acquiring the language, had resulted in a steep decline, especially in the numbers of younger users of NZSL. They noted that more recently, government policy has provided more support for NZSL acquisition in education, including early childhood education, but that the impact of these changes was yet to be measured.

Among measures to boost vitality has been the development and testing of the website Learn NZSL (www.learnnzsl.nz). Alexander, Vale, and McKee (Reference Alexander, Vale and McKee2017) reported on its development and the experience of users. While online learning provided flexible access, the lack of contact with a teacher or other learners led to a high dropout rate. The authors concluded by discussing ways of motivating students, including creating a virtual community among learners, supplying feedback on learning, or gamifying aspects of the learning.

6.1 Declining numbers

Several studies documented the decline in numbers of learners of additional languages. McLauchlan (Reference McLauchlan2015/2016) noted ‘ominous’ signs that the pragmatism governing subject choice as students move through the education system is decreasing overall numbers in language classes, with a correspondingly detrimental effect on the capacity of schools and tertiary institutions to offer languages. McLauchlan found that between 2002 and 2012, the numbers of students learning French, Japanese, German and Latin at secondary school reduced by rates of 7%, 35.7%, 34.1% and 50.1%, respectively. Although the numbers learning Chinese, Spanish and te reo Māori increased, this was not sufficient to make up the difference. Overall, excluding te reo Māori and Pacific languages, there was a 14% decline between 2005 and 2015 in the numbers of secondary school students enrolled to study a second language (L2) (NZALT & Asia New Zealand Foundation, 2016).

As McLauchlan notes, as numbers of students decrease, there is a danger that the capacity to provide instruction in additional languages declines with them. Echoing this, Ward and East (Reference Ward and East2016), drawing on interviews with principals and lead language teachers in four schools (n = 7) and an online teacher survey (n = 112), reported that the factors influencing schools as they made decisions about additional languages programmes included quality of teaching staff; timetabling and curriculum constraints; lack of status for language learning; and lack of compulsion to take a language.

East and Tolosa (Reference East, Tolosa and Morgan2015) examined pragmatism regarding language learning (judgments based on the perceived ‘usefulness’ languages have for work prospects, travel etc.). They traced the impact of the so-called ‘STEM revolution’ on the New Zealand school system. The authors observed that the current international focus on STEM subjects (science, technology, engineering and mathematics) to boost international competitiveness appears to be lowering the status of languages, thereby threatening the recruitment and retention of language students who, especially in the final years of secondary schooling, are often forced to choose between STEM subjects and others. Ogino, Nesbitt, and Shino (Reference Ogino, Nesbitt, Shino, Ogino, Shino and Nesbitt2016a) observed a decline of 48% in tertiary level enrolments in Japanese between 2005 and 2015. In addition, Ashton and Shino (Reference Ashton, Shino, Ogino, Shino and Nesbitt2016) found a strong move from studying Japanese as a major to studying it as a minor, alongside ‘career’ subjects.

The status of additional languages in the curriculum has also been weakened by the myth that everyone speaks English (East & Tolosa, Reference East, Tolosa and Morgan2015), leading to the assumption that languages other than English are essentially irrelevant for employment purposes. This view has been challenged by others who see language learning as integral to the global competitiveness STEM subjects are supposed to boost. East and Tolosa presented a case study of a Christchurch secondary school which, while adopting the status of a ‘STEM school’, has embraced all existing subjects and advocated an integrated, cross-curricular approach to STEM. They warned that in a fluid curricular environment, the future of language learning will rely on re-invention which moves away from teacher-fronted instruction as the paradigm to adopting innovations such as those described in Section 6.2.

6.2 Retention of learners

In response to declining numbers, motivation and retention have emerged as key themes. At secondary level, the interviews Scheffer-Cosslet and Kitchen (Reference Scheffer-Cosslett and Kitchen2013) carried out with students of German supported their contention that motivation is complex and multidimensional. The ability of students to imagine themselves using German for authentic communication with native speakers was identified as a crucial motivating factor, most commonly among those with previous experience of living in a country where multilingualism was the norm.

Payne, Howard, and Ogino (Reference Payne, Howard and Ogino2017) investigated whether secondary New Zealand students of Japanese were motivated by Japanese popular culture (specifically manga, graphic novels, and anime, animated films), as indicated in international literature. The study found that while a significant minority of the 178 students surveyed identified anime in particular as a motivational factor, the majority did not actually watch it. Those who did noticed educational benefits, and the authors concluded that anime could motivate students and aid their learning. In a more practical vein, Kennedy (Reference Kennedy2016) explores the merits of competing systems for teaching Chinese characters.

At tertiary level, the volume edited by Ogino, Shino, and Nesbitt (Reference Ogino, Shino and Nesbitt2016b) demonstrated ways that new thinking can stimulate student interest in a language traditionally taught in quite a formal way. In their introduction, Ogino, Nesbitt, and Shino (Reference Ogino, Nesbitt, Shino, Ogino, Shino and Nesbitt2016a) asserted that models and policies need to ‘be radically re-engineered’ (p. 19), if the decline in enrolments is to be reversed. They suggested both administrative changes, such as collaboration with government and non-government organisations, and the creation of learning pathways. They recommended moving from traditional teacher-fronted classrooms to much more innovative and egalitarian settings.

Other contributions to the same volume expanded on new forms of authentic engagement with the language. Kawai and Gallagher (Reference Kawai, Gallagher, Ogino, Shino and Nesbitt2016) studied how 150-hour work placements in schools or companies where Japanese was used helped students majoring in Japanese to develop autonomy. Nishimura and Umeda (Reference Nishimura, Umeda, Ogino, Shino and Nesbitt2016) ran visitor sessions, where native Japanese speakers learning English at the university visited their class of pre-intermediate learners of Japanese. An analysis of transcripts of the conversations showed how students benefited from the opportunities for practice and authentic communication the visitors offered. Minagawa (Reference Minagawa, Ogino, Shino and Nesbitt2016) also used transcripts, this time of a television drama, to enable students of Japanese linguistics to study language variation, register and politeness, as well as extralinguistic behaviour.

In a comprehensive departure from traditional approaches, Kawai, Waller, and Nesbitt (Reference Kawai, Waller, Nesbitt, Ogino, Shino and Nesbitt2016) integrated project-based language learning into two non-sequential, mixed-level classes, and found that the benefits far outweighed the drawbacks of giving up textbook-based instruction. Finally, Tabata-Sandom (Reference Tabata-Sandom, Ogino, Shino and Nesbitt2016) explored how extensive reading can be used to complement the traditional focus on accuracy-based intensive reading, thereby supporting fluency development.

6.3 Building intercultural communicative competence as part of language learning

The increasingly multicultural nature of New Zealand communities makes it desirable for New Zealand children to acquire intercultural competence early, and it is highlighted in the official New Zealand Curriculum as a component of the Learning Languages strand; as students ‘compare and contrast different beliefs and cultural practices, including their own, they understand more about themselves and become more understanding of others' (MoE, 2017b). The studies reported in this section concern teachers’ intercultural communicative competence. Student competence appears to be under-researched by comparison.

Howard, Biebricher, Tolosa, Scott, and East (Reference Howard, Biebricher, Tolosa, Scott and East2016) reported on the varied beliefs and practices of five teachers of Year 7–8 students, as part of an MoE project to support intercultural capability in intermediate schools. The participating teachers were not language specialists, though they had received relevant professional development. The researchers found their subjects’ understanding of the principles of intercultural communicative competence varied widely. While there was a consensus that language learning needed to be interactive and communicative, their treatment of culture in the classroom was based more on transmission of information and viewed as separate from language. The exception to this was a teacher of te reo Māori, for whom language and the world view it expresses were inextricably linked. The researchers saw this as a reference point for other teachers in building intercultural competence.

Two further studies on incorporating principles of intercultural competence at primary-school level found teachers’ understandings were under-developed. Howard, Scott, and East (Reference Howard, Scott and East2015) observed classes. In the lessons they witnessed, featuring both language and culture on the topic of birthday celebrations, the teacher and students began to reflect on the meaning of cultural differences, though this was inadequately developed. Oranje and Feryok's study (Reference Oranje and Feryok2013) related to the attention given by teachers to the home cultures of their students. They also found that evidence of intercultural awareness was limited, and, in the case of the specialist ESOL teacher, specifically avoided: teaching culture was ‘wasting time’ when ‘really they need to know the language so they can relate to the teacher and to their peers’ (p. 12).

With more encouraging results, at secondary level, Conway and Richards (Reference Conway and Richards2016, section 3) surveyed language teachers regarding how they made their teaching culturally responsive, in particular by acknowledging the cultural identity of their students and the language knowledge and experience they brought with them into the classroom. The survey brought to light a diverse range of practices used to create learner-centred classrooms in which the cultural and linguistic identity and resources of the students were explicitly drawn upon ‘with a focus on interaction and communication’.

East (Reference East2013a) examined how to build the intercultural communicative competence of language teachers through in-country professional development – in this case, a two-week government-funded Language and Culture Immersion Experience for secondary school teachers of French. Despite the brevity of the course, the participants found their understanding of French language and culture improved significantly, and they felt better placed to raise awareness of cultural differences among their students.

7.1 Early childhood education (ECE)

The research reveals that many ECE centres are multilingual sites. Reflecting international trends, studies reviewed here focused less on fixing supposed deficits in English and more on valuing and building on the languages and multilingual skills children bring with them.

An example of this focus is an edited volume produced through collaboration between researchers from the University of Auckland and teacher-researchers from four Auckland ECE centres (Podmore et al., Reference Podmore, Hedges, Keegan and Harvey2016). These included a Māori- and a Samoan-medium centre, and two English-medium centres with students representative of the linguistically superdiverse Auckland population. Based on questionnaires and focus groups for staff and parents, observations and video-clips, and teacher-student interviews, the study sought to document the languages spoken in centres, the learning experiences of the children, and the outcomes valued by parents, teachers and children. Here, the focus was on additive bilingualism, envisaging English as adding to the language repertoire of the children, rather than replacing the heritage language. The primary research interest was therefore in how home languages and the funds of knowledge students arrived with might be used to promote age-appropriate learning.

The authors found a range of practices in response to the plurilingual settings. For example, in the Samoan immersion centre, English was spoken only in specially designated areas (Tapusoa, Podmore, Tuafuti, Taouma, & Crichton, Reference Tapusoa, Podmore, Tuafuti, Taouma, Crichton, Podmore, Hedges, Keegan and Harvey2016). In the Māori centre, particular periods of the day were devoted to culturally appropriate use of te reo Māori (Castle, Young, Liley, Keegan, & Popata, Reference Castle, Young, Liley, Keegan, Popata, Podmore, Hedges, Keegan and Harvey2016); and in the English-medium centres, different languages were present on the walls, and greeting and departing times were moments of high use of the home languages (Anandh, Harvey, Hedges, Lotomau, & Subhani, Reference Anandh, Harvey, Hedges, Lotomau, Subhani, Podmore, Hedges, Keegan and Harvey2016; Hartley et al. Reference Hartley, Rogers, Smith, Lovatt, Harvey, Hedges, Podmore, Hedges, Keegan and Harvey2016). The study indicates values promoted by the curriculum – empowerment, relationships, family, community and holistic development (MoE, 2017a) – but also reveals culturally specific values reflecting the language and culture of each centre. Involvement in the research project raised staff members’ awareness of the linguistic richness of their charges and new practices were developed in each centre. These were particularly salient in the English-medium centres, and included a deeper co-operation with the families and a growth of the metalinguistic awareness of both monolingual and bilingual children.

Acknowledging that the project had shown ‘how multiple languages can be fostered intentionally in planned and systematic ways’ (Harvey, Hedges, Podmore, & Keegan, Reference Harvey, Hedges, Podmore, Keegan, Podmore, Hedges, Keegan and Harvey2016, p. 118), the researchers concluded that teachers need the professional knowledge to recognise the value of these approaches. This is underscored in a report by the Education Review Office (ERO, 2017) based on data drawn from 167 ECE centres and 104 schools, which focused on the development of oral language in early years (in both English and other home languages). It found ‘very few services where teachers had a clear and shared understanding of expectations for children's oral language learning and development’ (p. 19), and, among other recommendations, suggests encouraging use of the home language and appointing staff who share home languages with some of the children.

Two studies have used narrative approaches to investigate the experiences of such multilingual teachers in ECE. N. Harvey (Reference Harvey2013a) recorded the ‘principled practices’ (p. 19) of five teachers known to use home languages in their work. The teachers noted positive benefits, including helping students and their families to feel safe, supporting language maintenance, and building on learning from children's early L1 experience. On the other hand, Arndt (Reference Arndt2014) pointed out that within the climate of apparent celebration of the diversity of children and their families, teachers from non-local origins can struggle to have their differences appreciated and to avoid pressures to homogeneity.

7.2 Primary schools

Like ECE teachers, their primary school counterparts often have limited preparation for the language needs of their students. The focus of research in primary schools over this period shares with that in the previous section an interest in teacher knowledge and awareness, but is concerned with the learning of English, with little attention to home languages.

Berry and Kitchen (Reference Berry and Kitchen2014), also interested in oral language as part of learning, analysed recorded interactions including ELLs, their native English-speaking peers and the teacher in the first author's own classroom. They concluded that the teacher's reflection and flexible intervention is key to optimising opportunities for learners to benefit from interactive work. Newton and Jeurisson's (Reference Newton and Jeurissen2013) small case study showed how portfolios of work done by students in ESOL withdrawal classes could help enhance awareness by mainstream teachers of their ELLs’ language needs, and help students see connections with their other classes.

7.3 Secondary schools

Students of diverse language backgrounds featuring in the ECE and primary research reviewed here appear to be mainly the children of migrant families. At secondary level another important cohort is present, namely international students. ERO (2013) indicates that immediately prior to the period in review, there were nearly 8,500 international students enrolled in New Zealand secondary schools.

Three of the articles about this level (Kitchen, Reference Kitchen2013; McCarthy, Reference McCarthy2016a, Reference McCarthy2016b) are concerned with relationships between ELLs and their peers. Kitchen explored how Korean migrant students who had primary schooling in New Zealand experienced the transition to secondary school. They often felt a loss of confidence and connectedness, as they were sometimes excluded from groups that had earlier accepted them as full members. In this vacuum, some gravitated towards newly arrived Korean international students and adopted Korean modes of behaviour. Kitchen observed that this could work against aspirations parents expressed for their children's integration into New Zealand society and workplaces.

McCarthy's research into refugee-background Nepali students in a provincial secondary school also included the relationships that can affect adolescents’ educational progress. McCarthy (Reference McCarthy2016b) identified the trajectory of friendship networks made possible by changing language proficiency and strategic choice within both first and new culture environments. Prioritising friendships that helped reinforce their Nepalese identity meant their progress in English was not as rapid as expected, but enabled them to balance both influences. The focus of McCarthy (Reference McCarthy2016a) was on the methodological insights gleaned in researching this potentially vulnerable group of adolescents from her perspective as a teacher turned researcher. She noted the value of well-established relationships with the students, their families and communities, a combination of focus groups and one-to-one interviews, and strategies for encouraging relaxed discussion.

7.4 Tertiary learning

At tertiary level, two projects looked at EAL students engaged in university study. Lee's (Reference Lee2017c) study of ten students during their first semester in a New Zealand university examined how in making sense of academic demands they called on brokers, both peer and non-peer, outside classes. A shared language was often key to peer brokering, but they also sought out students who had superior knowledge of the course or the academic culture, even where there was no shared L1. In a further article, Lee (Reference Lee2017b) reflected on cross-linguistics issues she had faced in that study in interviewing students with whom she did not herself share an L1.

At doctoral study level, Reinders, Cho, and Lewis (Reference Reinders, Cho and Lewis2013) considered the affordances provided by online interactions between one supervisor and four Ph.D. students, all advanced L2 speakers of English. The study examined written feedback, noting the importance of affect and its potentially greater demands in computer-mediated encounters. The supervisor was found to be attentive to the relationships, making extensive use of politeness strategies, and giving rationales for suggestions made. Comments on language mistakes, however, were conveyed more baldly.

8.1 Curricular issues

A number of studies have given an overview of curricular issues at tertiary level, and the responsiveness to different needs. They cover a community-based course for refugee-background learners with low levels of L1 education (Potgieter, Reference Potgieter2016), general English courses for both migrant and international students (Andrew, Reference Andrew2016a), English for academic purposes (EAP) courses (Bruce, Reference Bruce2017) and courses delivered overseas by a New Zealand institution (Otto, Reference Otto2013, Reference Otto2016).

Potgieter's (Reference Potgieter2016) action research project to promote adult learners’ critical awareness of their learning was undertaken in a class for former refugees grappling with English and literacy at an early level, with a bilingual tutor able to support some of the learners with translation. She introduced new tasks, each of which had an important element of peer learning. Potgieter found that this aspect and ongoing self-assessment activities may ‘rais[e] learners’ critical awareness of learning at this level’ (p. 55).

Andrew (Reference Andrew2016a) discussed critical pedagogy, by which teachers and students unpack normalised language use to recognise issues of power imbalance. He provided three examples of praxis in English classes for adults which required students to engage with the community. Student tasks included a community volunteer placement, an ethnographic exploration of diversity, and a portfolio reporting on authentic listening opportunities. In each, a built-in reflective process allowed the participants to deepen their understanding of the community and of themselves as language users within it.

Bruce (Reference Bruce2017) noted the rising demand for specialised EAP courses in New Zealand and elsewhere as international and migrant students seek access to study. He asserted that EAP requires a specialised understanding, but that teachers typically enter EAP teaching without specialist preparation. Bruce calls for inclusion of this area in teacher-education courses and for New Zealand conferences and symposia to develop the field.

The focus of two studies by Otto (Reference Otto2013, Reference Otto2016) was appropriate processes for designing ‘place-based’ courses to be delivered in collaboration by a New Zealand educational institution and an offshore partner. Key contributors to the success of two blended learning programmes delivered in Malaysia were ‘dialogues and conversations with all the stakeholders’ (Otto Reference Otto2016, p. 41) and training provided by the New Zealand institution for local staff facilitating face-to-face sessions which took account of the local context.

8.2 Assessment issues

A general movement towards standardised national qualifications for government-funded education intensified interest in the assessment of ELLs over the period. Read (Reference Read2014) raised some general concerns about assessment, discussing concepts of consistency, fairness and validity in relation to assessed writing in two large-scale standardised tests (IELTS and TOEFL), and one standards-based assessment task from the New Zealand Qualifications Authority Framework for secondary students. These examples highlighted the complexity and importance of striving for these three qualities.

Fairness to ELLs in the administration of tests designed for native speakers was raised in several studies at different levels. As Darr (Reference Darr2014) explains, mathematics tasks are contextualised to relate them to real-world processes, but the language and contexts used may not be familiar to ELLs, as confirmed in Jourdain and Varta Sharma's (Reference Jourdain and Varta Sharma2016) literature review of the linguistic challenges posed by the study of mathematics. Tung and Kitchen (Reference Tung and Kitchen2014) examined the impact on a single 12-year-old refugee-background learner of a mathematics test widely used in primary schools to help teachers establish each student's learning needs. They found that some instructions and vocabulary, both general and technical, were not understood by their subject. Consequently, such tests may under-represent the achievements of ELLs, leading to inappropriate decisions about their needs.

Luxton (Reference Luxton2013) reported on the development of a diagnostic reading test for ELLs in secondary schools to provide a fairer alternative to existing tests designed for native speakers. Lane (Reference Lane2014) addressed this issue at tertiary level in an MoE report on an assessment tool in mandatory use in all government-funded adult education for literacy and numeracy. The report tentatively concluded that the literacy skills of ELLs were appropriately assessed. However, numeracy test data was less clear, and ELLs were noted to take longer to complete assessments than other learners.

In another study with implications for fairness, Wu and Erlam (Reference Wu and Erlam2016) investigated the impact of time limits in tests of L2 writing. They administered two tests, one timed and one untimed, to a group of adult ELLs. An innovative aspect was the adjustment of the time limit for individuals proportionate to the rate of writing achieved under the untimed condition. There was evidence that a trade-off sometimes occurred in attention to aspects of the writing when time was limited, but there were individual differences as to which aspects were affected.

Others have reported on new test development. Read (Reference Read2016) provided an account of the development by the New Zealand Qualifications Authority of the New Zealand Certificate in English Language (NZCEL), a standardised national qualification. He discussed the complexities of benchmarking with international qualifications and frameworks such as the Common European Framework of Reference and the IELTS examination, and meeting equivalence standards with other New Zealand measures. Hiser (Reference Hiser2013) was also concerned with benchmarking, and gave an account of research probing the relationship between a placement test developed within her university and IELTS bands awarded to the same students. Results suggested ‘the real possibility of developing placement tests for specific programmes which reflect the international norms of professionally standardised English-language tests’ (p. 1).

Assessment of speaking has been a cross-cutting theme during the survey period (refer to Section 4.1.3). In the case of additional languages, East (Reference East2014) and Erlam (Reference Erlam2015) investigated a National Certificate of Educational Achievement standard introduced in secondary schools in 2010 to align assessment better with the curriculum through the use of unscripted peer interaction in the target language. Erlam emphasised its potential to provide valuable washback. For example, she found the interactions showed instances of developing fluency and peer support. East's survey of 152 language teachers similarly elicited favourable comments about the authenticity and washback of the new standard. However, time and technical issues left some teachers unwilling to use it.

8.3 Vocabulary

Vocabulary size and the lexical demands of study have been of particular interest in vocabulary studies in the period.

Omidian, Beliaeva, Todd, and Siyanova-Chanturia (Reference Omidian, Beliaeva, Todd and Siyanova-Chanturia2017) compared the use of single and multi-word items of academic language in a corpus of L2 English essays in a New Zealand secondary school with essays from the Louvain Corpus of Native English Essays (though see Nesi, Matheson, and Basturkmen, Reference Nesi, Matheson and Basturkmen2017, below for the comparability of such sources). Native-speaker adolescent writers used significantly more varied academic vocabulary, though there was a much higher degree of similarity in use of multi-word items. Luxton, Fry, and Coxhead (Reference Luxton, Fry and Coxhead2017) go beyond measuring to supporting academic vocabulary development. They worked with ESOL and disciplinary teachers in 35 secondary schools, raising their awareness of vocabulary issues and sharing principles of ESOL, vocabulary learning and general education. Although there were no control groups, given the teaching-as-inquiry approach taken, the study found that ‘students, especially English-language learners, could make rapid strides in learning academic vocabulary with appropriate support’ (p. 20).

Parkinson et al. (Reference Parkinson, Coxhead, Demecheleer, Mackay, Matautia, McLaughlin and Tu'amoheloa2017) reported on a large-scale project, ‘Language in the Trades’, to investigate language demands and teaching practices, develop resources, including bilingual materials, and support language development in four trades areas. They found teaching texts were ‘lexically as demanding as university-level academic texts’ (p. 10) and recommended ways of addressing this. Coxhead, Demecheleer, and McLaughlin (Reference Coxhead, Demecheleer and McLaughlin2016) focused on one of the trades, carpentry, identifying a high number of new lexical items and ‘heavy reliance on oral language in the classroom and on the building site’ (p. 38) as key learning challenges.

8.4 Teaching and learning literacies

Work under this heading is divided into literacy at university level and the emerging literacy of adult students with limited prior education.

Reflective of Bruce's (Reference Bruce2017) comment about the growth of EAP, several studies have shown an interest in how demands at tertiary level have been met. Wette (Reference Wette2013), concerned at the lack of research into classroom practices, investigated those of seven experienced, qualified and highly regarded teachers of academic writing. She was particularly interested in the use of product- or process-orientations towards writing instruction. She found the two were blended in lessons that were genre-based but also included writing process and sentence-level grammar and vocabulary. Teachers were, though, concerned to go beyond language support to develop student capabilities for future disciplinary study. This was also the guiding principle for a course on academic writing described by Andrew and Romova (Reference Andrew and Romova2014), where students produced a portfolio of writing based on analysing and creating text types linked to their future study disciplines. They noted that the students were thus able to develop imagined future identities as successful communicators within those disciplines. One further article focused on products – academic assignments – rather than instructional procedures. Nesi et al. (Reference Nesi, Matheson and Basturkmen2017) compared features of undergraduate student writing from British, US and New Zealand corpora. The comparison reveals that of the three, the New Zealand examples were the most formal linguistically, which may have implications for student mobility and the applicability of EAP materials across educational environments.

Two articles by Field address the effectiveness of approaches to teaching reading to adults with low-level literacy in English, some with minimal L1 literacy, an area that has not been widely researched. In both studies, she found that elements of student autonomy were attainable. Field (Reference Field2017b) received positive student feedback on a scaffolded ‘balanced’ approach to teaching reading, including computer-mediated and co-constructed texts recording the class's shared experiences. The other study (Field, Reference Field2017a) surveyed students about an extensive reading intervention providing a daily period of silent reading of easily understandable texts to promote fluency. Growing autonomy, enjoyment and positive reading habits were indicated. Although neither study had control groups, Field highlights the importance of reading that is varied, interesting and relevant to the readers and within students’ current competency.

8.5 Listening

Two studies reported on programmes to enhance students’ listening by providing a programme of out-of-class activities: Roe (Reference Roe2013) through a choice of pre-selected e-listening texts, and Andrew (Reference Andrew2016b) through self-selected listening, including both CALL semi-authentic texts and real-life face-to-face encounters. In both studies, students produced a reflective record of their listening and reported on their use of strategies. Andrew pointed out that this reflection led them into metacognitive domains and enhanced their awareness of their agency as their listening improved. Roe noted that learner autonomy was enhanced. In both cases, most students found the programme provided skills they transferred into other important areas of language use.

8.6 Teacher cognition

In Sections 8.6 and 8.7, the focus turns specifically to teacher cognition.

Noting the responsibility mainstream teachers have for supporting ELLs in their content classes, two small surveys investigated their knowledge in this regard. Edwards and Easto (Reference Edwards and Easto2013) studied early-career primary teachers, and Edwards (Reference Edwards2014) researched secondary teachers of English, Science, Mathematics or Social Science, subjects for which MoE resources for supporting ELLs have been developed. The studies indicated a low level of knowledge of ELL needs and little time to provide support. This is of some concern considering the conclusions of Edwards (Reference Edwards2016), which examined MoE materials designed to assist mainstream teachers in supporting ELLs. The analysis found that the demands of grammatical and metalinguistic knowledge they make would render them difficult for some New Zealand-educated teachers to access, since the education system lacks a strong tradition of grammar instruction.

Two studies have investigated the cognition of ESOL teachers at tertiary level. Field and Vane (Reference Field and Vane2017) investigated teachers’ perceptions and promotion of learner autonomy, focusing particularly on students with low levels of literacy. Participants were far less likely to perceive this group as autonomous compared with those of higher proficiency, but accepted responsibility for fostering autonomy in all groups through targeted scaffolding. Tan's (Reference Tan2017) study of teachers’ attitudes to the use of L1 took place in an English-language centre where signs exhorted students to speak ‘English only’. However, the participant teachers subverted this where classroom use of L1 supported other objectives, such as the learning of course content. Tension arose where the presence of a dominant group of co-nationals or students with low English proficiency led to particularly high L1 use.

8.7 Teacher education and professional development

There has been research interest in three widely used tools for teacher development, namely reflection, observation and reading, as well as investigations of the experiences of non-native English speakers studying language teaching in New Zealand.

Conway and Denny (Reference Conway and Denny2013) conducted a follow-up study of a Master's-level course where experienced language teachers participated in a reflective practice project. Participants indicated this had enhanced their ability to learn from reflection, particularly from course activities with a dialogic element, such as post-observation discussion with tutors and peers. Haultain (Reference Haultain2013) was also concerned with depth of reflection in teacher education, and with the power of photo-elicitation to support it. Her teacher-education students were invited to supplement their reflective journals with self-taken photos relevant to their language-learning experience component. She found this led to a ‘depth of comment … and … unexpected detail’ resulting in excellent essays with ‘increased depth of critical reflection’ (p. 7).

Another process widely used for in-service teacher development, observations, was the subject of Naik, Hodges, and Kirk's (Reference Naik, Hodges and Kirk2017) small-scale project investigating the use of a four-step framework (collaboration, observation, teacher reflection, extension: CORE), designed to increase the agency of the observed teacher through building on collaboration established at the outset. The study found that CORE encouraged greater experimentation, lasting change, and less stress about the observation process.

Kitchen, Gray, and Jeurissen (Reference Kitchen, Gray and Jeurissen2015) were interested in the professional reading that practising primary school teachers enrolled on an in-service Teaching English to speakers of other languages qualification did prior to and during their study. Their study found the frequency was ‘beneficial but low’ (p. 63), but that motivation and participation jumped where relevance to their own practice was identified, especially after enrolment on the course.

Hartley et al. (Reference Hartley, Rogers, Smith, Lovatt, Harvey, Hedges, Podmore, Hedges, Keegan and Harvey2016) described the use of two evaluation tools for language teachers participating in a year-long in-service training programme to assess their use of core practices seen as promoting student success. The tools consisted of a portfolio collecting evidence of principle and strategy use, and a template for evaluating practice in relation to interactive and meaningful use of the target language by both teachers and students. She evaluated the reliability and validity of the tools and used a case study to illustrate their effectiveness.

Two studies invited non-native English-speaking students to provide retroflection on their study for English-teaching qualifications in English-speaking universities. In both, students generally valued the courses, with some caveats. Li and Tin (Reference Li and Tin2013) found a gap in expectations of opportunities for teaching practice. Erlam (Reference Erlam2014), following up graduates of a Malaysian government-sponsored programme to educate English teachers in New Zealand, found that on return to their high-structure transmission-focused education system, they encountered severe limitations on their ability to implement student-centred approaches advocated in the course. Both studies underline the importance of New Zealand-based educators having a well-developed understanding of the contexts their students will teach in.

8.8 Language learning and use in wider contexts

Some research over the period has been interested in community affordances for English learning, and in issues of language use in New Zealand.