2.1. Free Electron Stopping

In the classical work of Peter and Meyer-ter-Vehn (Reference Peter and Meyer-ter-Vehn1991), an analytic approximation of stopping power of free electrons for arbitrary projectile velocities is deduced inside the theoretical framework of Vlasov linear theory of stopping power. There, the plasma parameter

(1)$${Z} = \displaystyle{{{Z_{{\rm eff}}}} \over {{n_{\rm e}}{\rm \lambda} _{\rm D}^{\rm 3}}}, $$

where Z _eff is the projectile effective charge, n _e is the electron density and λ_D is the Debye length. This parameter separates in two regions the plasma by means of their degeneracy, for classical plasmas is Z < 1, while for degenerate plasmas is Z ≥ 1. In the study of quantum plasmas, other degeneracy parameter (Arista & Brandt, Reference Arista and Brandt1984) is used:

(2)$$D = \displaystyle{{{E_{\rm F}}} \over {{k_{\rm B}}T}},$$

where E _F is the Fermi energy. Plasma degenerates for D ≫ 1 and non-degenerates for D ≪ 1. The two regions for both parameters are represented in a density-temperature map showed in Figure 1.

Fig. 1.

Temperature-density diagram divided in two regions by the blue line, and dashed dark green. Proton projectiles are considered. Upper zone is classical plasma region while lower one is the degenerate region. The red box delimited the warm dense matter (WDM) conditions.

For Z < 1, an analytic formula was proposed by Peter and Meyer-ter-Vehn (Reference Peter and Meyer-ter-Vehn1991):

(3)$$\eqalign{Sp & = {\left[ {\displaystyle{{{Z_{{\rm eff}}}e{{\rm \omega} _{\rm p}}} \over {{v_{\rm p}}}}} \right]^2}\left[ {G\left( {\displaystyle{{{v_{\rm p}}} \over {\sqrt {{k_{\rm B}}T/m}}}} \right)\ln ({k_{\max}} {{\rm \lambda} _D}) \;+} \right. \cr & \quad \left. {H\left( {\displaystyle{{{v_{\rm p}}} \over {\sqrt {{k_{\rm B}}T/m}}}} \right)\ln \left( {\displaystyle{{{v_{\rm p}}} \over {\sqrt {{k_{\rm B}}T/m}}}} \right)} \right],} $$

where

(4)$$G({v_{\rm p}}) = {\rm erf}\left[ {\displaystyle{{{v_{\rm p}}} \over {\sqrt 2}}} \right] - {\left[ {\displaystyle{2 \over {\rm \pi}}} \right]^{1/2}}{v_{\rm p}}\exp \left( { - \displaystyle{{v_{\rm p}^2} \over 2}} \right),$$

(5)$$H({v_{\rm p}}) = - \displaystyle{{v_{\rm p}^{\rm 3}} \over {3\sqrt {2{\rm \pi}} \ln {v_{\rm p}}}}\exp \left( { - \displaystyle{{v_{\rm p}^{\rm 2}} \over 2}} \right) + \displaystyle{{v_{\rm p}^{\rm 4}} \over {v_{\rm p}^{\rm 4} + 12}}.$$

Here, v _p is projectile velocity, e is electron charge, ω_p is plasma frequency, T is temperature, k _B is Boltzmann constant, and k _max a cut-off parameter that is chosen between classical and quantum limits (Arista & Brandt, Reference Arista and Brandt1984).

(6)$$\left\{ \matrix{{k_{\max Cl}} = \displaystyle{{m\left( {v_{\rm p}^{\rm 2} + 2{k_B}T/m} \right)} \over {\left \vert {{Z_{{\rm eff}}}} \right \vert {e^2}}} \hfill \cr {k_{\max Qu}} = \displaystyle{{2m{v_{\rm p}}} \over \hbar} \hfill} \right.$$

The equations from (3)–(6) have been simplified by Volpe et al. (Reference Volpe, Batani, Vauzour, Nicolai, Santos, Regan, Morace, Dorchies, Fourment, Hulin, Perez, Baton, Lancaster, Galimberti, Heathcote, Tolley, Spindloe, Koester, Labate, Gizzi, Benedetti, Sgattoni, Richetta, Pasley, Beg, Chawla, Higginson and MacPhee2011) for the case of protons (Z _eff = 1), where is given the stopping power as a function of energy instead of velocity for proton case. Equation (3) is used for pure classical plasmas. However, for intermediate degeneration or quantum plasmas, it is necessary to perform calculations using the integration of the DF given in this work.

The study of stopping power for plasmas of all degeneracy degrees can be performed using the RPA DF, which consists of considering the effect of the incident particle as a perturbation, so that the energy loss was proportional to the square of its charge. Then slowing-down was simplified to a treatment of the properties of the medium only, and a linear description of these properties may then be applied.

This DF is developed in terms of the wave number k and of the frequency ω provided by a consistent quantum mechanical analysis. The RPA analysis yields to the expression (Lindhard, Reference Lindhard1954):

(7)$${{\rm \varepsilon} _{{\rm RPA}}}(k,\,{\rm \omega} ) = 1 + \displaystyle{1 \over {{{\rm \pi} ^2}{k^2}}}\int {d^3}k^{\prime}\displaystyle{{\,f\,(\vec k + {{\vec k}^{\;\prime}}) - f\,({{\vec k}^{\;\prime}})} \over {{\rm \omega} + i{\rm \upsilon} - ({E_{\vec k + {{\vec k}^{\;\prime}}}} - {E_{{{\vec k}^{\;\prime}}}})}}\,,$$

where ${E_{\vec k}} = {k^2}/2$. The temperature dependence is included through the Fermi–Dirac function

(8)$$f\,(\vec k) = \displaystyle{1 \over {1 + \exp [{\rm \beta} ({E_k} - {\rm \mu} )]}}\,$$

being β = 1/k _BT and μ the chemical potential of the plasma. In this part of the analysis we assume the absence of collisions so that the collision frequency tends to zero, υ → 0.

Analytic RPA DF for plasmas at any degeneracy can be obtained directly from Eq. (7) (Gouedard & Deutsch, Reference Gouedard and Deutsch1978; Arista & Brandt, Reference Arista and Brandt1984)

(9)$${{\rm \varepsilon} _{{\rm RPA}}}(k,{\rm \omega} ) = 1 + \displaystyle{1 \over {4{z^3}{\rm \pi} \,{k_{\rm F}}}}[g(u + z) - g(u - z)],$$

where g(x) corresponds to

(10)$$g(x) = \int_0^\infty {\displaystyle{{ydy} \over {\exp (D{y^2} - {\rm \beta} {\rm \mu} ) + 1}}\ln \left( {\displaystyle{{x + y} \over {x - y}}} \right)} $$

u = ω/kv _F and z = k/2k _F are the common dimensionless variables (Lindhard, Reference Lindhard1954). D = E _Fβ is the degeneracy parameter and ${v_{\rm F}} = {k_{\rm F}} = \sqrt {2{E_{\rm F}}} $ is Fermi velocity in a.u.

Finally, electronic stopping of free plasma electrons will be calculated in the dielectric formalism as

(11)$$Sp({v_{\rm p}}) = \displaystyle{{2{Z}_{{\rm eff}}^{\rm 2}} \over {{\rm \pi} v_{\rm p}^{\rm 2}}} \int_0^\infty \displaystyle{{{\rm d}k} \over k}\int_0^{{\rm kv}} {\rm d}{\rm \omega} \,{\rm \omega} \,Im\left[ {\displaystyle{{ - 1} \over {{{\rm \varepsilon} _{{\rm RPA}}}(k,\,{\rm \omega} )}}} \right]\;{\rm (a}{\rm. u}{\rm. )}$$

The calculation of the integrals in Eq. (11) could be difficult and computationally slow in some cases. A fast accurate method is to make an interpolation from a database (Barriga-Carrasco, Reference Barriga-Carrasco2013). In Figure 2, we can see the stopping power calculated from Eqs (3) and (11) for the same plasma conditions. Both stoppings are similar to each other.

Fig. 2.

Stopping power as a function of the projectile energy (protons). Blue dashed line calculated by Eq. (3). Read dotted line estimated by interpolation of RPA stopping database. Green dash-dotted line direct calculation of RPA DF by Eq. (12).

Stopping power dependence on temperature and electron density as function of projectile velocity is observed for low-medium velocities and vanishes for high velocities. In this last case, stopping power is a function approximately linear of electron density.

In order to illustrate these effects, we choose a region of classical plasmas to compare Eqs (3) and (11), because a complete study for all degeneracy is off the limits of this work.

The stopping power rises when the electron density grows, but not linearly. There are two dependencies in Eq. (3). One is linear, because ${{\rm \omega} _{\rm p}} = \sqrt {4{\rm \pi} {n_{\rm e}}} $, and the other one is logarithmic due to ln(k _maxλ_D). When all the parameters remain constant except density, the Eq. (3) can be expressed as a density function:

(12)$$Sp({n_{\rm e}}) = {n_{\rm e}}\left[ {{K_{\rm \alpha}} \ln \left( {{1 / {\sqrt {{n_{\rm e}}}}}} \right) + {K_{\rm \beta}}} \right]$$

The consequence of Eq. (12) is that stopping power increases less than the growth of density, as seen in Figure 3, where it is showed the stopping power ratios for different densities from 1.10¹⁹ to 1.10²² e⁻/cm³. All of them are divided for the stopping corresponding to 1.10¹⁹ e⁻/cm³ (Sp ₀) and plotted as a function of proton energy in MeV. For high velocities and small densities variations inside the plasma, we can considerer stopping power as quasilinear function of density.

Fig. 3.

Ratio of stoppings for different densities as a function of proton energy. The reference stopping is corresponding to 1.1019 e⁻/cm³. Dashed lines: Estimated using RPA. Dotted lines: Calculated by means of analytical formula.

In the case of temperature, if we calculate the stopping ratio for many temperatures with constant density of 1.10¹⁹ e⁻/cm³ by means of the stopping for a temperature of 50 eV (Sp ₀), the exponentials in Eqs (3)–(5) show a decay exponential behavior with an asymptotic limit equal to 1, as it is shown in Figure 4. We can approximate this behavior with the exponential expression, where R ₀ is equal to unity:

(13)$${R_{{\rm Sp}}} = {R_0} + a{e^{ - {v_{\rm p}}/b}}$$

Due to these results the stopping power calculations for slow projectiles in heterogeneous plasmas with high gradients in temperature and density will be very sensible to the theoretical methods used to estimate it (Gericke & Schlanges, Reference Gericke and Schlanges2003).

Fig. 4.

Ratio of stoppings for different temperatures as a function of proton energy. The reference stopping is corresponding to 50 eV. Dashed lines: Estimated using RPA. Dotted lines: Calculated by means of analytical formula.

On the other hand for high velocities projectiles, we can approximate the stopping power as linear function of density.

2.2. Bound Electron Stopping

The stopping power of a cold gas or a plasma for an ion has been calculated many times by the well-known Bethe formula (Bethe, Reference Bethe1930):

(14)$$Sp = {\left[ {\displaystyle{{{Z_{{\rm eff}}}e{{\rm \omega} _{\rm p}}} \over {{v_{\rm p}}}}} \right]^2}\ln \left[ {\displaystyle{{2m{v_{\rm p}}} \over I}} \right],$$

where I is the mean excitation energy, which averages all the exchanged energy in excitation and/or ionization processes between a swift charged particle and target bound electrons. I can be easily calculated for every neutral atom as a function of atomic number Z, I = 10.3Z (eV) (Garbet et al., Reference Garbet, Deutsch and Maynard1987). For ions, I can be obtained solving Poisson's equation of atomic electron density (Garbet et al., Reference Garbet, Deutsch and Maynard1987) using analytic atomic potentials with the independent particle model (Green et al., Reference Green, Sellin and Zachor1969). I, K, and r² are estimated using this method as:

(15)$${I^2} = \displaystyle{{{Z^4}} \over {{N^3}}}\displaystyle{{{H^2}} \over {6{d^3}}}\displaystyle{{[1 - (N/6Z)(1 + (1/2H))]} \over {F({\rm \alpha} )}},$$

(16)$$K = \displaystyle{{{Z^3}} \over {{N^3}}}\displaystyle{H \over {2d}}\left[ {Z - N\left( {\displaystyle{1 \over 6} + \displaystyle{1 \over {12H}}} \right)} \right],$$

(17)$${r^2} = \displaystyle{{6{d^2}} \over H}F({\rm \alpha} ),$$

where Z is the atomic number of the ion and N is its quantity of bound electrons. H = dγN ^ν, where ν and γ are chosen as 0.4 and 1.0, respectively, and d is tabulated for Z values from 2 to 103. K is the kinetic electron energy and r² is the mean square radius. Finally, α = 1 − (1/H), and

$$F({\rm \alpha}) = \sum\limits_{n = 0}^\infty {\displaystyle{{{{\rm \alpha} ^n}} \over {{{(n + 1)}^2}}}} {\rm ;}\;0 \le {\rm \alpha} \le 1$$

However, the Bethe formula cannot fit well the stopping power at low velocities due to logarithm in Eq. (14) gives a negative value when its argument is <1, that is $\left( {{{2mv_{\rm p}^{\rm 2}} / I}} \right) \lt \!1$. One way to avoid this is to substitute the logarithm by a set of formulas for high and low velocities interpolated for an intermediate value (Barriga-Carrasco & Maynard, Reference Barriga-Carrasco and Maynard2005):

(18)$${L_{\rm b}}({v_{\rm p}}) = \left\{ \matrix{{L_{\rm H}}({v_{\rm p}}) = \ln \displaystyle{{2v_{\rm p}^{\rm 2}} \over I} - \displaystyle{{2K} \over {v_{\rm p}^{\rm 2}}} {\rm} {\rm for}\; {v_{\rm p}} \gt {v_{{\rm int}}} \hfill \cr {L_{\rm B}}({v_{\rm p}}) = \displaystyle{{{\rm \alpha} v_{\rm p}^{\rm 3}} \over {1 + Gv_{\rm p}^{\rm 2}}} \; {\rm} {\rm for}\; {v_{\rm p}} \le {v_{{\rm int}}} \hfill} \right.$$

where

(19)$${v_{{\rm int}}} = \sqrt {3K + 1.5I}. $$

Then, stopping power of bound electrons can be calculated by means of (14) and (18):

(20)$$S{p_{\rm b}}({v_{\rm p}}) = \displaystyle{{Z_{{\rm eff}}^{\rm 2} 4{\rm \pi} {n_{{\rm at}}}} \over {v_{\rm p}^{\rm 2}}} {L_{\rm b}}({v_{\rm p}})$$

K and I can be calculated for the whole plasma ions using Eqs (15) and (16). However, this is a rough approximation, because for a swift charge it is more difficult to ionize the inner electrons than the outer ones. A more detailed calculation can be performed by estimation shell by shell of K and I using a Hartree–Fock method (Barriga-Carrasco & Casas, Reference Barriga-Carrasco and Casas2013; Casas et al., Reference Casas, Barriga-Carrasco and Rubio2013), obtaining a better fit to low projectile velocities.

In Eq. (20), stopping power is not a function of temperature and shows a lineal dependence with density. But, it is only valid for plasmas whose ions are not affected by the environment, that is that density and temperature can change population and energies of its atomic levels. In these cases, we must take into account these effects, as lowering potential (Stewart & Pyatt, Reference Stewart and Pyatt1966) where I is reduced by the Coulomb potential of surrounding ions.

In Figure 5 we can see the stopping power calculation using Garbet expressions of K and I for the whole atom, and Hartree–Fock method for theses quantities shell by shell in the same aluminum plasma for proton projectiles.

Fig. 5.

Stopping power of bound electrons as function of proton energy. Two different sets of K and I for the aluminum ion plasma are used in the calculation of stopping power using Eq. (15) (Bethe) and (21) (Barriga-Carrasco & Maynard).

2.3. Total Stopping Power

When an ion beam passes through partially ionized plasma, the stopping power of this medium is estimated by the addition of stopping of bound electrons of plasma atoms to the stopping of free plasma electrons.

In this kind of plasmas the influence of temperature and density is as follows: When the temperature rises, the stopping power decreases. On the other hand, when temperature lowers, stopping power increases. This parameter affects mainly to free electrons stopping power. For bound electrons the influence is due to electron level changes, at high temperatures. There is a nonlinear dependence with density, mainly for free electrons. Bound electrons stopping power is a linear function of density, except when there are changes in electron configuration, at high densities.

The dependence with ionization, q, is due to the phenomenon called Enhanced Plasma Stopping (Couillaud et al., Reference Couillaud, Deicas, Nardin, Beuve, Guihaume and Renaud1994): When q rises, the stopping power also increases. The reason is the increasing of free electrons density in plasma. It is important mainly at low projectile velocities. For low q, bound electrons stopping power is important for medium-high projectile velocities.

In the next section, it will be explained how the energy loss and Bragg peak is calculated from the total stopping power.

3.1. Homogeneous WDM

A proton beam loses its energy in a material by means of a continuous and dynamical process: When it initially collides with energy Ep _i, is slowed down by means a force, the stopping power, which is a function of proton energy. Its energy decreases, and an equal energy quantity is transferred to the medium. Then the stopping power changes and the proton beam lose a different energy. This process continues until the proton beam traverses all the material or is completely stopped inside.

The easy way to estimate energy losses of a proton beam consists to divide the path inside the plasma into segments connected by nodes where the energy loss is recalculated in each one. In order to do this, we follow the next scheme:

1. 1. Read the input data, where the proton energy is the first column and stopping power the second one.

2. 2. The initial stopping power, Sp _i, is obtained by means of an interpolation made between the two nearest stopping values of the input.

3. 3. Estimate the energy loss using this expression:

   (21)$${E_{{L_{\rm i}}}} = \displaystyle{{S{p_{\rm i}}} {\Delta x}},$$
   where Δx is the step length that we use to calculate the stopping power inside the plasma.

4. 4. We obtain the new proton beam energy and we continue reevaluating the energy loss in each step, until the proton beam goes outside the plasma or is totally stopped inside.

In Figures 6 and 7 we show, the influence of density and temperature in the range of Bragg peak for homogeneous WDM. A proton beam with an initial energy of 1.5 MeV, passes through a thick partially ionized plasma until is totally stopped.

Fig. 6.

Bragg peak position as function of density. Depth where proton beam is totally stopped: Black dash-dotted line: 0.182 cm. Blue dashed line: 0.0217 cm. Red dotted line: 0.00281 cm.

Fig. 7.

Bragg peak position as function of temperature. Depth where proton beam is totally stopped: Black dash-dotted line: 0.182 cm. Blue dashed line: 0.166 cm. Red dotted line: 0.1655 cm.

In the case of density variation, the position of Bragg peak shows a quasilinear dependence on density. In the other case, when density remains constant and temperature is changed, Bragg peak moves its position due to the effects of temperature for low projectile velocities.

3.2. Heterogeneous WDM

Using Eqs (3) or (11), and (20), it is possible to evaluate the target density profile effects in stopping power calculations for two different density distributions: Rectangular shape with a constant density and the piecewise approximation of a trapezium shape with a density profile given by (Andreev et al., Reference Andreev, Steinke, Sokollik, Schnürer, Ter Avetsiyan, Platonov and Nickles2009):

(22)$${n_{\rm i}}(z) = \displaystyle{{2{n_{i\;{\rm max}}}} \over {1 + \exp [(2x{\rm \theta} (x)/{l_{\rm r}}) - (2x{\rm \theta} ( - x)/{l_{{\rm fr}}})]}}.$$

The Eq. (22) is the density distribution obtained when a laser prepulse, with an intensity of 10¹¹ W/cm² and a duration of 1 ns, hit a thin target with a thickness of 1 µm or less. Here x = z − 0.5l _f and θ(x) is a step function. The scale lengths l _fr at the front side (in respect to the laser pulse direction), and l _r at the rear side, are obtained from the initial target thickness, l _f, l _fr, and l _r are expressed in microns. For a solid aluminum target, n _i max = 6.10²² cm⁻³.

We will study a proton beam passing through these plasmas with different densities and lengths, but same superficial densities due to rectangular and piecewise profiles conserve the particle quantity. If the stopping was a linear function of density, it would imply that in both cases proton beam must lose the same energy. But, it was showed in Eq. (12) and Figure 3 that is not linear, although for small differences like here, the stopping power has a quasi-linear dependence on density and for this reason the final proton beam energy is slightly different for both cases. These density profiles and its corresponding energy losses are showed in Figure 8.

Fig. 8.

The target density profiles (top) and its corresponding energy loss functions (bottom). The final energy was 1.409 MeV for the rectangular profile and 1.401 MeV for the piecewise profile.

3.3. Application on WDM Heating

It is possible to estimate the final temperature of the piecewise plasma profile when a proton bunch passes through it. We suppose a proton beam, made up of 10¹¹ protons, impacts in a circular area of 50 µm of diameter with an energy of 1.5 MeV. From an initial temperature of 5 eV, the plasma is heated until 25 eV, approximately, with a temperature distribution given by the corresponding piecewise density profiles. This approximation was obtained using an ideal thermodynamic EOS. We can observe in Figure 9, how the plasma is heated for a proton beam that travels from left to right. In the right part of the plasma, the heating is higher than in the left one, although the density is lower in this area. The reason is that the proton beam has been stopped in the first part, losing its energy and increasing the stopping power as we can see in Figure 7, allowing the bunch to deposit more energy in plasma. Due to plasma density is low in this part, there is more energy to distribute to the ions and consequently a higher temperature is achieved.

Fig. 9.

Red short dot line represents the plasma temperature after the heating by proton beam. Dark solid line is the piecewise profile density that approximates Eq. (23). Initial plasma conditions are the same as Fig. 8.