Until recently, virtual teams were often used as an organizational strategy for pulling the best talent from across different geographic settings, cultures, and/or time zones (Connaughton & Shuffler, Reference Connaughton and Shuffler2007). As technology has proliferated and become more affordable, we have witnessed a rise in the use of virtual teams, where some or all of the team’s communication is mediated via technology (McLarnon etal., Reference McLarnon, O’Neill, Taras, Law, Donia and Steel2019). The accessibility and sophistication of affordable technology has also stimulated an increased focus on the use of online instruction in higher education. In the context of the pandemic, the decision to conduct teamwork through virtual technology is more than a strategic choice, it is an imperative for continuing work and education while mitigating safety risks of employees or students. As such, it is clear that our students are highly likely to be in virtual teams in both the educational and future work context (Gilson etal., Reference Gilson, Maynard and Bergiel2013). We expand on Kath etal.’s (Reference Kath, Salter, Bachiochi, Brown and Hebl2021) argument for the use of groups/teams literature for teaching by identifying evidence-based pedagogical recommendations drawn from the virtual team literature.
Although the face-to-face group/team literature is relevant to virtual teams, its generalizability is limited. Without careful attention to the unique aspects of virtual teams, such teams are less likely to be effective and satisfying to team members (Gilson etal., Reference Gilson, Maynard, Jones Young, Vartiainen and Hakonen2015), outcomes that are particularly important to industrial and organizational (I-O) psychology. We present small, medium, and large changes that could be implemented to enhance virtual team effectiveness in the educational domain and better prepare students to work effectively in virtual teams in the work domain.
Small changes: develop common rules of interaction and have an initial synchronous meeting
Extant literature indicates that there are a number of challenges and barriers to effectiveness in virtual teams including the prevalence of counternormative behavior (e.g., swearing, insults, and name-calling) in the virtual context (Driskell etal., Reference Driskell, Radtke and Salas2003; Siegel etal., Reference Siegel, Dubrovsky, Kiesler and McGuire1986). Counternormative behavior among virtual team members indicates a lack of predictability and consistency in team member behavior, which is key to establishing and maintaining trust (Cascio, Reference Cascio2000; Feitosa & Salas, Reference Feitosa and Salas2020). Instructors may wish to integrate preventative measures into their courses when requiring virtual teamwork. One small change that has demonstrated support in the applied context (Beranek & Martz, Reference Beranek and Martz2005) is to develop a document outlining clear rules for virtual interaction and discuss the content from the outset. Often referred to as netiquette, the document outlines guidelines and norms for virtual interaction (e.g., Olson-Buchanan etal., Reference Olson-Buchanan, Rechner, Sanchez and Schmidtke2007), promoting respect and tolerance among team members and providing examples of constructive and civil communication. Students should be encouraged to reflect on these guiding rules via discussion and elaboration. Further, students can even be asked to contribute to the document by providing their own examples of courteous online conduct, allowing for a collaborative experience. By addressing potential for counternormative behavior early in virtual team development via a netiquette document, instructors can enhance trust and team effectiveness.
Central to the success of virtual teams is the development of a shared understanding (Axtell, Reference Axtell2017) or a common mental model (Maynard & Gilson, Reference Maynard and Gilson2014). Shared understanding refers to the recognition of the common goal among team members. Peters and Manz (Reference Peters and Manz2007) emphasize that it involves “embracing the strategic direction of the team, including an understanding of the expertise each member possesses and how they can interact in order to realize the overall goals” (p. 120). Lack of social and emotional cues, physical dispersion of team members, and absence of direct contact can all contribute to the challenge of establishing a shared understanding across the virtual team, (Axtell, Reference Axtell2017) and, ultimately, to building trust. Another small change instructors can make to enhance shared understanding is to urge the use of a synchronous initial meeting among virtual team members. The synchronous meeting (using rich technology) can help develop a shared understanding of the team’s processes, goals, and individual team members’ areas of expertise. Moreover, as research indicates, meeting synchronously can assist in establishing trust among team members (Bos etal., Reference Bos, Gergle, Olson and Olson2001). On top of the initial synchronous meeting, instructors can implement additional small changes by encouraging teams to hold synchronous meetings at other important junctures in their projects (e.g., half-way point, revision stage). Doing so can help reemphasize goals for the final outcome, provide support for members struggling with their portions of the project, and help clarify any misunderstandings that may have developed over time.
Medium changes: incorporate an introduction exercise and use an assignment that develops conflict-management skills
To facilitate a shared understanding even further, a medium change can be incorporated by instructors promoting an explicit and purposeful exchange of background information between members. As discussed earlier, developing a shared understanding is inherently more difficult in a virtual environment (Axtell, Reference Axtell2017), where the prevalence for misunderstanding due mostly to communication issues between virtual team members is amplified (Marlow etal., Reference Marlow, Lacerenza and Salas2017). Instructors can help mitigate some of these challenges by assigning virtual team members to introduce themselves via a brief video posted to a shared group page or learning management system (LMS). Specifically, students can record an introduction video supplying team members with information about themselves, their work habits, expectations for a well-functioning team, understanding of the task at hand, and their areas of expertise (Axtell, Reference Axtell2017). Instructors can even provide an example of such an introductory video by creating and posting one themselves first, allowing their video to serve as a template for what might be considered useful information to share with team members. Such an exercise will facilitate the exchange of contextual information—ultimately reducing the potential for division within the virtual team. All team members should be encouraged to view the videos of fellow team members and use the information appropriately to help assign future work tasks and aid in developing a shared understanding.
Another medium change relates to conflict and effective conflict management, which are particularly important issues for virtual team effectiveness. Research on virtual teams suggests that conflict is more likely to occur in virtual teams and manifest as destructive conflict, negatively affecting team performance. Researchers have shown that relationship conflict has a stronger negative effect on team satisfaction as the degree of virtuality increases (Stark & Bierley, Reference Stark and Bierly2009) and that relationship conflict and process conflict have stronger negative effects on team performance in virtual team settings (Martinez-Moreno etal., Reference Martínez-Moreno, González-Navarro, Zornoza and Ripoll2009). Finally, there is some evidence that the presence of task conflict may be even more important in virtual teams, with a study showing that virtual teams had a stronger significant and positive relationship to performance than face-to-face teams (De Jong etal., Reference De Jong, Schalk and Curşeu2008).
Given its importance, we argue that it is imperative to cover the topic of conflict and conflict resolution early in the class time line, before students perform virtual team tasks rather than at the end of the semester (where most textbooks seem to place chapters on conflict). One medium change instructors could make, which we have used, is to incorporate a conflict resolution assignment early in the semester. One such assignment focuses on the generation of task conflict through critical discussion and consensus making while also providing an illustration of the utility of structured decision-making processes, which have positive effects on virtual teams, increasing their satisfaction with both the process and the decision-making outcome (Chiravuri etal., Reference Chiravuri, Nazareth and Ramamurthy2011). This assignment requires teams to solve two short cases; the first case is given to the student team with little guidance other than the case prompt. After solving the case, students are asked to reflect on their experience in the team, focusing on three areas: idea generation, critical debate, and consensus making. After reflection, teams are debriefed and taught team decision-making techniques, team roles, and conflict types. Next, the students are given a second case, with guided instructions designed to have them implement decision-making structure into their team. Instructions include assigning the roles of leader, devil’s advocate, and conflict mediator. We also instruct the teams on using brainwriting, clustering, and consensus-making techniques. Finally, after implementing the decision-making processes and structure, students solve the case and reflect on the different team experiences and outcomes of the two cases. Another possible assignment that develops conflict resolution skills is the Everest Leadership and Team Simulation (Roberto & Edmonson, 2008). This simulation works well with virtually colocated teams and demonstrates the importance of dealing with asymmetric information and misaligned goals to effectively mitigate conflict (Roberto & Edmonson, 2008). Finally, the Dispute Resolution Research Center (DRRC) at Northwestern University and Harvard Business Publishing Education have several negotiation cases that emphasize a collaborative conflict management style, an approach associated with increased satisfaction with team processes and team outcomes in virtual teams (Paul etal., Reference Paul, Samarah, Seetharaman and Mykytyn2004).
Large changes: giving and receiving feedback across a semester-long all-virtual project
One large change an instructor can implement is to assign students to give and receive peer feedback within their teams over the course of the semester (McLarnon etal., Reference McLarnon, O’Neill, Taras, Law, Donia and Steel2019). Giving and receiving such feedback serves to enhance communication about expectations and needed adjustments, thereby facilitating the development of a shared mental model. The peer feedback system should use both outcome feedback (i.e., performance outcomes) and process feedback (i.e., how an individual engages in a task). For example, the peer feedback could be a round-robin form in which team members are required to give and receive feedback about each other’s adherence to the team norms and/or their contributions to the team. In our undergraduate courses, we have used periodic online surveys that require each team member to provide a rating, on a scale of 100, for each other member (outcome feedback) while also providing a space for comments on specific individual behaviors (process feedback). Such a component would serve to reinforce theory and research on performance management as well. The peer feedback could be used to determine individual grades (Olson-Buchanan etal., Reference Olson-Buchanan, Rechner, Sanchez and Schmidtke2007), which would also serve to enhance distributive and procedural justice and minimize social loafing. Or it could be used for development purposes only, where students would receive full credit for completing the feedback forms. Such an approach may be especially helpful in facilitating a learning orientation rather than performance orientation.
Another large change that instructors could implement is to assign a semester-long project, such as what was suggested by Kath etal. (Reference Kath, Salter, Bachiochi, Brown and Hebl2021), but require it to be conducted in an entirely virtual context. Although completing a project this way can be challenging, it is highly realistic and reflective of global virtual teams. Further, doing so will reinforce the development of key processes and structures, particularly with respect to the development and maintenance of trust over time, which are critically important for virtual team effectiveness (Feitosa & Salas, Reference Feitosa and Salas2020), without using face-to-face interactions as a compensatory device. We have taught a course using such an assignment where virtual teams compete against other virtual teams in a case competition that is developed from a local organization each semester. Alternatively, virtual teams could be assigned a project wherein they are to develop an online training program that requires them to first conduct a needs assessment (virtually), then develop learning objectives (etc.), and, finally, deliver the training program to the rest of the class.
This all-virtual approach allows instructors much richer information to access with respect to providing feedback and direction on group process. For example, the instructor can access recorded material from team interactions to address team concerns and provide feedback for redirection, if needed. Such documentation may serve to enhance virtual team performance in teams that have low levels of trust (Breuer etal., Reference Breuer, Hüffmeier and Hertel2016). Documentation also provides a mechanism for students to engage in self-reflection on their teamwork skills and contributions as their team interactions are recorded (in text or video). If using a flipped classroom approach, such as what was suggested by Kath etal. (Reference Kath, Salter, Bachiochi, Brown and Hebl2021), the instructor could “walk about” in the virtual context, providing feedback and suggestions to virtual teams on the fly in their Zoom sessions or other portals.
Conclusion
Although they may have once been considered a novelty, virtual teams in the workplace and educational context are the dominant reality today. Yet, working within virtual teams introduces challenges that are unique or exacerbated by the virtual context particularly with respect to building trust, managing conflict, and building a shared understanding or mental model. We have shared two small, medium, and large evidence-based changes that instructors can make in the classroom to enhance the use of virtual teams, which will serve to enhance the learning experience and inspire students as to the relevance of our field. One common theme in our suggestions is to apply these changes early in the semester, largely because virtual team effectiveness requires additional investment at the start of the group processes. We offer these suggestions, along with Kath etal.’s (Reference Kath, Salter, Bachiochi, Brown and Hebl2021) suggestions, because incorporating these evidence-based practices in the classroom will not only enhance the educational experience of our students but also better prepare them to apply this knowledge in the workplace.
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Until recently, virtual teams were often used as an organizational strategy for pulling the best talent from across different geographic settings, cultures, and/or time zones (Connaughton & Shuffler, Reference Connaughton and Shuffler2007). As technology has proliferated and become more affordable, we have witnessed a rise in the use of virtual teams, where some or all of the team’s communication is mediated via technology (McLarnon etal., Reference McLarnon, O’Neill, Taras, Law, Donia and Steel2019). The accessibility and sophistication of affordable technology has also stimulated an increased focus on the use of online instruction in higher education. In the context of the pandemic, the decision to conduct teamwork through virtual technology is more than a strategic choice, it is an imperative for continuing work and education while mitigating safety risks of employees or students. As such, it is clear that our students are highly likely to be in virtual teams in both the educational and future work context (Gilson etal., Reference Gilson, Maynard and Bergiel2013). We expand on Kath etal.’s (Reference Kath, Salter, Bachiochi, Brown and Hebl2021) argument for the use of groups/teams literature for teaching by identifying evidence-based pedagogical recommendations drawn from the virtual team literature.
Although the face-to-face group/team literature is relevant to virtual teams, its generalizability is limited. Without careful attention to the unique aspects of virtual teams, such teams are less likely to be effective and satisfying to team members (Gilson etal., Reference Gilson, Maynard, Jones Young, Vartiainen and Hakonen2015), outcomes that are particularly important to industrial and organizational (I-O) psychology. We present small, medium, and large changes that could be implemented to enhance virtual team effectiveness in the educational domain and better prepare students to work effectively in virtual teams in the work domain.
Small changes: develop common rules of interaction and have an initial synchronous meeting
Extant literature indicates that there are a number of challenges and barriers to effectiveness in virtual teams including the prevalence of counternormative behavior (e.g., swearing, insults, and name-calling) in the virtual context (Driskell etal., Reference Driskell, Radtke and Salas2003; Siegel etal., Reference Siegel, Dubrovsky, Kiesler and McGuire1986). Counternormative behavior among virtual team members indicates a lack of predictability and consistency in team member behavior, which is key to establishing and maintaining trust (Cascio, Reference Cascio2000; Feitosa & Salas, Reference Feitosa and Salas2020). Instructors may wish to integrate preventative measures into their courses when requiring virtual teamwork. One small change that has demonstrated support in the applied context (Beranek & Martz, Reference Beranek and Martz2005) is to develop a document outlining clear rules for virtual interaction and discuss the content from the outset. Often referred to as netiquette, the document outlines guidelines and norms for virtual interaction (e.g., Olson-Buchanan etal., Reference Olson-Buchanan, Rechner, Sanchez and Schmidtke2007), promoting respect and tolerance among team members and providing examples of constructive and civil communication. Students should be encouraged to reflect on these guiding rules via discussion and elaboration. Further, students can even be asked to contribute to the document by providing their own examples of courteous online conduct, allowing for a collaborative experience. By addressing potential for counternormative behavior early in virtual team development via a netiquette document, instructors can enhance trust and team effectiveness.
Central to the success of virtual teams is the development of a shared understanding (Axtell, Reference Axtell2017) or a common mental model (Maynard & Gilson, Reference Maynard and Gilson2014). Shared understanding refers to the recognition of the common goal among team members. Peters and Manz (Reference Peters and Manz2007) emphasize that it involves “embracing the strategic direction of the team, including an understanding of the expertise each member possesses and how they can interact in order to realize the overall goals” (p. 120). Lack of social and emotional cues, physical dispersion of team members, and absence of direct contact can all contribute to the challenge of establishing a shared understanding across the virtual team, (Axtell, Reference Axtell2017) and, ultimately, to building trust. Another small change instructors can make to enhance shared understanding is to urge the use of a synchronous initial meeting among virtual team members. The synchronous meeting (using rich technology) can help develop a shared understanding of the team’s processes, goals, and individual team members’ areas of expertise. Moreover, as research indicates, meeting synchronously can assist in establishing trust among team members (Bos etal., Reference Bos, Gergle, Olson and Olson2001). On top of the initial synchronous meeting, instructors can implement additional small changes by encouraging teams to hold synchronous meetings at other important junctures in their projects (e.g., half-way point, revision stage). Doing so can help reemphasize goals for the final outcome, provide support for members struggling with their portions of the project, and help clarify any misunderstandings that may have developed over time.
Medium changes: incorporate an introduction exercise and use an assignment that develops conflict-management skills
To facilitate a shared understanding even further, a medium change can be incorporated by instructors promoting an explicit and purposeful exchange of background information between members. As discussed earlier, developing a shared understanding is inherently more difficult in a virtual environment (Axtell, Reference Axtell2017), where the prevalence for misunderstanding due mostly to communication issues between virtual team members is amplified (Marlow etal., Reference Marlow, Lacerenza and Salas2017). Instructors can help mitigate some of these challenges by assigning virtual team members to introduce themselves via a brief video posted to a shared group page or learning management system (LMS). Specifically, students can record an introduction video supplying team members with information about themselves, their work habits, expectations for a well-functioning team, understanding of the task at hand, and their areas of expertise (Axtell, Reference Axtell2017). Instructors can even provide an example of such an introductory video by creating and posting one themselves first, allowing their video to serve as a template for what might be considered useful information to share with team members. Such an exercise will facilitate the exchange of contextual information—ultimately reducing the potential for division within the virtual team. All team members should be encouraged to view the videos of fellow team members and use the information appropriately to help assign future work tasks and aid in developing a shared understanding.
Another medium change relates to conflict and effective conflict management, which are particularly important issues for virtual team effectiveness. Research on virtual teams suggests that conflict is more likely to occur in virtual teams and manifest as destructive conflict, negatively affecting team performance. Researchers have shown that relationship conflict has a stronger negative effect on team satisfaction as the degree of virtuality increases (Stark & Bierley, Reference Stark and Bierly2009) and that relationship conflict and process conflict have stronger negative effects on team performance in virtual team settings (Martinez-Moreno etal., Reference Martínez-Moreno, González-Navarro, Zornoza and Ripoll2009). Finally, there is some evidence that the presence of task conflict may be even more important in virtual teams, with a study showing that virtual teams had a stronger significant and positive relationship to performance than face-to-face teams (De Jong etal., Reference De Jong, Schalk and Curşeu2008).
Given its importance, we argue that it is imperative to cover the topic of conflict and conflict resolution early in the class time line, before students perform virtual team tasks rather than at the end of the semester (where most textbooks seem to place chapters on conflict). One medium change instructors could make, which we have used, is to incorporate a conflict resolution assignment early in the semester. One such assignment focuses on the generation of task conflict through critical discussion and consensus making while also providing an illustration of the utility of structured decision-making processes, which have positive effects on virtual teams, increasing their satisfaction with both the process and the decision-making outcome (Chiravuri etal., Reference Chiravuri, Nazareth and Ramamurthy2011). This assignment requires teams to solve two short cases; the first case is given to the student team with little guidance other than the case prompt. After solving the case, students are asked to reflect on their experience in the team, focusing on three areas: idea generation, critical debate, and consensus making. After reflection, teams are debriefed and taught team decision-making techniques, team roles, and conflict types. Next, the students are given a second case, with guided instructions designed to have them implement decision-making structure into their team. Instructions include assigning the roles of leader, devil’s advocate, and conflict mediator. We also instruct the teams on using brainwriting, clustering, and consensus-making techniques. Finally, after implementing the decision-making processes and structure, students solve the case and reflect on the different team experiences and outcomes of the two cases. Another possible assignment that develops conflict resolution skills is the Everest Leadership and Team Simulation (Roberto & Edmonson, 2008). This simulation works well with virtually colocated teams and demonstrates the importance of dealing with asymmetric information and misaligned goals to effectively mitigate conflict (Roberto & Edmonson, 2008). Finally, the Dispute Resolution Research Center (DRRC) at Northwestern University and Harvard Business Publishing Education have several negotiation cases that emphasize a collaborative conflict management style, an approach associated with increased satisfaction with team processes and team outcomes in virtual teams (Paul etal., Reference Paul, Samarah, Seetharaman and Mykytyn2004).
Large changes: giving and receiving feedback across a semester-long all-virtual project
One large change an instructor can implement is to assign students to give and receive peer feedback within their teams over the course of the semester (McLarnon etal., Reference McLarnon, O’Neill, Taras, Law, Donia and Steel2019). Giving and receiving such feedback serves to enhance communication about expectations and needed adjustments, thereby facilitating the development of a shared mental model. The peer feedback system should use both outcome feedback (i.e., performance outcomes) and process feedback (i.e., how an individual engages in a task). For example, the peer feedback could be a round-robin form in which team members are required to give and receive feedback about each other’s adherence to the team norms and/or their contributions to the team. In our undergraduate courses, we have used periodic online surveys that require each team member to provide a rating, on a scale of 100, for each other member (outcome feedback) while also providing a space for comments on specific individual behaviors (process feedback). Such a component would serve to reinforce theory and research on performance management as well. The peer feedback could be used to determine individual grades (Olson-Buchanan etal., Reference Olson-Buchanan, Rechner, Sanchez and Schmidtke2007), which would also serve to enhance distributive and procedural justice and minimize social loafing. Or it could be used for development purposes only, where students would receive full credit for completing the feedback forms. Such an approach may be especially helpful in facilitating a learning orientation rather than performance orientation.
Another large change that instructors could implement is to assign a semester-long project, such as what was suggested by Kath etal. (Reference Kath, Salter, Bachiochi, Brown and Hebl2021), but require it to be conducted in an entirely virtual context. Although completing a project this way can be challenging, it is highly realistic and reflective of global virtual teams. Further, doing so will reinforce the development of key processes and structures, particularly with respect to the development and maintenance of trust over time, which are critically important for virtual team effectiveness (Feitosa & Salas, Reference Feitosa and Salas2020), without using face-to-face interactions as a compensatory device. We have taught a course using such an assignment where virtual teams compete against other virtual teams in a case competition that is developed from a local organization each semester. Alternatively, virtual teams could be assigned a project wherein they are to develop an online training program that requires them to first conduct a needs assessment (virtually), then develop learning objectives (etc.), and, finally, deliver the training program to the rest of the class.
This all-virtual approach allows instructors much richer information to access with respect to providing feedback and direction on group process. For example, the instructor can access recorded material from team interactions to address team concerns and provide feedback for redirection, if needed. Such documentation may serve to enhance virtual team performance in teams that have low levels of trust (Breuer etal., Reference Breuer, Hüffmeier and Hertel2016). Documentation also provides a mechanism for students to engage in self-reflection on their teamwork skills and contributions as their team interactions are recorded (in text or video). If using a flipped classroom approach, such as what was suggested by Kath etal. (Reference Kath, Salter, Bachiochi, Brown and Hebl2021), the instructor could “walk about” in the virtual context, providing feedback and suggestions to virtual teams on the fly in their Zoom sessions or other portals.
Conclusion
Although they may have once been considered a novelty, virtual teams in the workplace and educational context are the dominant reality today. Yet, working within virtual teams introduces challenges that are unique or exacerbated by the virtual context particularly with respect to building trust, managing conflict, and building a shared understanding or mental model. We have shared two small, medium, and large evidence-based changes that instructors can make in the classroom to enhance the use of virtual teams, which will serve to enhance the learning experience and inspire students as to the relevance of our field. One common theme in our suggestions is to apply these changes early in the semester, largely because virtual team effectiveness requires additional investment at the start of the group processes. We offer these suggestions, along with Kath etal.’s (Reference Kath, Salter, Bachiochi, Brown and Hebl2021) suggestions, because incorporating these evidence-based practices in the classroom will not only enhance the educational experience of our students but also better prepare them to apply this knowledge in the workplace.