This volume is among the few books on Arabic sociolinguistics. It begins with a list of charts, maps, and tables, followed by a list of abbreviations of the different languages and dialects considered in the volume and an explanation of the transcription, glosses, and transliteration scheme used to transcribe names and titles. This technical prelude is followed by an introduction, in which Bassiouney narrates events that have impacted her and led her to discuss the “importance of Arabic sociolinguistics and the relationship between language and society” (6). Each narrated incident is connected to a specific chapter or chapters, whereby she discusses the different sociolinguistic themes. In addition, Bassiouney highlights the book's limitations and organization, and briefly deals with the “development of Sociolinguistics as a field of study” (6). In a way, she tries to demonstrate that Arabic sociolinguistics is interwoven with Western sociolinguistics, and “how sociolinguistic theories can be applied to Arabic” (6). This provides the reader with another perspective of “the function of language in society” (6).
The book contains five chapters that cover the main topics in Arabic sociolinguistics, with a focus on Arabic data analysis in most chapters. Bassiouney begins each chapter by introducing the major theme of the chapter, followed by a discussion of the classic works conducted in both the West and the Arab world. Each chapter ends with a conclusion that clarifies her discussion. This recuperation might seem redundant, but it could be of help to students in an introductory course on Arabic sociolinguistics.
Ch. 1 focuses on the classic dilemma facing Arabic speakers: diglossia. The author introduces the reader to the unending discussion in both the Arab world and in the West about the dual aspect of the language—or in reality the various aspects of the Arabic language. She discusses Charles Ferguson's contribution to the study of diglossia and his efforts to draw our attention to the concept of diglossia in Arabic, which was examined earlier by the French dialectologist William Marçais (12). However, according to Bassiouney, Ferguson's description was criticized because it did not take into consideration the “social factors” of diglossia; it overlooked the variety of sociodialects. Other linguists' ideas on diglossia are also examined in this section. The chapter ends with Bassiouney's classification of five different groups of Arabic dialects, which are classified synchronically, “made by measuring and selecting salient linguistic variables for each dialect or group of dialects” (19). She stresses the fact that dialects share similarities that distinguish them from Modern Standard Arabic and Classical Arabic (20). A number of examples are given to illustrate interdialectal similarities and differences, as well as the differences between the dialects and their counterparts in standard Arabic (21).
In Ch. 2 Bassiouney focuses on code switching (CS) and begins with an explanation of the difference between the terms “code switching” and “code mixing” as defined by some linguists. She agrees with Carol Myers-Scotton (Reference Myers-Scotton1997) that there should not be any distinction between the two and that code switching should cover both switches. She then discusses the different theories of CS. Some can be applied to Arabic, while others cannot. Finally, Bassiouney discusses in detail Myers-Scotton's model of a matrix language (ML). She outlines her views on CS, as well as examines a number of studies whereby the ML model is applied to CS between different languages. Bassiouney finds the ML model to be the “most promising of all,” stating that it “does not rely on a specific language, but is capable of being used with languages which are quintessentially different in their content of morphemes and system of morphemes, like Arabic and English” (40).
In her interesting section on structural constraints on diglossic CS, the author states that “although the theory of ML is indeed valid in certain cases, it does not seem to give a clear-cut picture of what goes on in the diglossic community of ECA/MSA [Egyptian Colloquial Arabic/Modern Standard Arabic]” and that “a more sophisticated framework ought to be considered” (55). Furthermore, since linguists have argued that all types of CS “should be studied within the same framework, then one would expect theories of CS to explain diglossic switching as well” (54).
To demonstrate her point of view, Bassiouney offers a number of examples that pose problems for the ML hypothesis and challenge the idea of syntactic constraints on CS. However, she hastens to add that Myers-Scotton “did not set off to explain diglossia and that most linguists were more interested in bilingual switching rather than diglossic switching” (54).
Also included in Ch. 2 is a discussion of different motivations and discourse functions of classical CS and of diglossic switching. One type of motivation emphasizes the role of the individual in CS as expessed by Gumperz (Reference Gumperz1982). Bassioueny states that Myers-Scotton finds problem with this idea because “it places great deal of emphasis on the individual's creative role” (63). In Myers-Scotton's view, writes Bassiouney, “CS is a role governed phenomenon… it should be studied as such… that this emphasis on the individual may ‘promote individualized ad hoc explanations’ (Scotton Reference Myers-Scotton1993. 62) for code-switching” (63). However, it is not clear Gumperz had this belief (63).
While discussing diglossic switching, the author presents studies that have dealt with switching between regional dialects and between a dialect and MSA, such as her own study on ECA and MSA. In this study Bassiouney examines political speeches to clarify her argument that if the speaker's role changes while delivering a speech, so does the code. Her conclusion is that “there is a direct relation between change of role and change of code” (73). The author concludes Ch. 2 by emphasizing the need of a universal theory that can be applied to both bilingual and monolingual societies (64).
In Ch. 3 the author discusses major works on language variation and change and their methodologies in examining linguistic variation. Linguists that have studied the Arab world, as well as those who have concentrated on the West, are given a fair share of the discussion. Studies that have concentrated on one or more of the social variables in the Arab world are introduced, offering insight on the cultural diversity, ethnic differences, and linguistic complexities existing in the Arab world, and providing the reader with an understanding on how extralinguistic variables in the Arab world differ from those in the West.
Bassiouney argues that because of the many interdialectal communications in the Arab world, it is necessary to study leveling in relation to language change. This is a study that is scarce in Arabic. Moreover, because of the diglossic situation, leveling is different than in other communities. Hence, “the diglossic situation … adds a new dimension to our understanding of language variation and change” (125).
Ch. 4 “gives an overview of the study of gender in the field of linguistics in relation to Arabic” (128). She discusses how gender is viewed in the Arab world while describing cultural differences between the Arab world and the West. Different linguistic assumptions about gender and the challenges to these assumptions are presented. Such differences “might lead to different linguistic context” (133).
The chapter begins with a discussion of several sociolinguistic theories that concentrate on gender. Bassiouney starts with the deficit theory and expounds on Robin Lakoff's contribution to the study of gender in relation to language (despite criticism from sociolinguists that Lakoff was making too many generalizations (130)). The dominance theory, which focuses on male dominance and power, is also mentioned; it is criticized for oversimplifying the definition of power (131). Bassiouney also examines the difference theory (or cultural theory) associated with the work of Deborah Tannen. Difference theory explains linguistic differences between men and women in terms of cultural distinction. It is, however, criticized by some linguists because it stipulates a “bicultural model, which cannot be applied cross-culturally” (132). Finally, the third wave approach is based on “the concept of a community that is defined according to what is local and practical” (133). This theory stipulates that the culture of a community controls its members.
Ch. 4 has given the author a good opportunity to dwell on women in the Arab world who are “trying throughout to break stereotypes” (133). It describes the “existing diversity of the situation of men and women in the Arab world” (134). Such diversity exists in education, urbanization, wealth, traditions, and religious practices. Bassiouney makes a point of briefly explaining recently ascending socio-religious practices such as wearing the veil. This section is a welcomed addition that should be of interest to readers unfamiliar with recent social development in the Muslim world.
In Ch. 5 the author outlines the policy and politics of promoting or opposing the use of Standard Arabic in the Arab world. In doing so, she discusses the relation of language and identity and how language can be used as a “symbol of one's identity” (199). She had “to resort to political science, sociology, psychology, anthropology and history as well as sociolinguistics” in order to clarify her discussion on the power of language (199). Furthermore, this chapter provides useful information about the efforts in the Arab world to push for Arabic as an official language during their struggle against colonialism.
A large section of Ch. 5 focuses on the process of Arabization in most of the Arab countries, discussing both its success as well as its failure. Meanwhile, Bassiuoney provides information about the role of language academies in the Arab world in “preserving the Arabic language” (256), that is, Standard Arabic. Some members of the language academies blame diglossia for “hindering Arabisation processes, of causing an increase of illiteracy levels and even of promoting and sustaining non-democratic systems” (265). Bassiuoney, however, considers diglossia “an asset rather than impediment” and stresses the fact that “by eliminating it we are suppressing a linguistic richness in Arab societies” (267).
Finally, in this chapter, readers are further made aware that politics in the Arab world play a major role in formulating policies regarding language planning and linguistic rights of minorities. The author supports her argument by providing examples on how a language can be manipulated to unite or divide people.
This volume represents a welcome addition to the body of work on sociolinguistics, and specifically on Arabic sociolinguistics. While this book is a significant contribution to the field of sociolinguistic analysis, its true strength is its value to students interested in pursuing research associated with the Arab world. It will draw their attention to certain sociohistorical, cultural, and political aspects and their intertwining with the different linguistic features in the Arab world.
It is obvious that the author has applied her own knowledge gained from previous research on sociolinguistic theory and methods. She draws on the studies of many sociolinguists, as is reflected in the book's extensive bibliography, as well as on her personal knowledge of the Arabic language and culture.
The organization of the book allows readers to either read the whole book or individual chapters. There is some information that is repeated in more than one chapter. However, I assume, the author presupposes that some readers might not have enough background knowledge about the many different sociolinguistics facets of the Arab world.
The issues raised in every chapter are very a propos, especially with all of the sociocultural changes that the Arab world is experiencing nowadays. These issues deserve further study, as the author points out repeatedly. Recently in the Arab world there have been many discussions on television, articles written, and conferences held on language planning, the decline of Standard Arabic, and the rampant use of colloquialism in the domain of Standard Arabic. Some discussions went so far as stating that Arab national identity is eroding due to the decline in cultural values and the lack of proper use of the language (meaning the use of the standard language). Ch. 5, specifically, provides the reader with very useful information about language planning, policies, and the relationship between language and identity and language and nationalism. The chapter is useful and inspiring for anyone working on any of these topics.
I certainly hope this volume will stimulate more research on language and society in the Arab world. Such research will help “scholars and students to begin thinking about how and why matters of language in the Arab world are not always like matter of language in the West” (7). It is indeed a recommendable book.
