Eastern Medieval Architecture, for which Robert Ousterhout was awarded the Haskins Medal in 2021, is divided into four main sections: Late Antiquity (third to seventh century), Transitional Period (seventh to ninth century), Middle Byzantine centuries (ninth to twelfth), and Late Byzantine and Post-Byzantine centuries (thirteenth to sixteenth). The book opens with the preserved remains of Dura Europos, largely destroyed in the mid-third century, and then moves to Early Christian, and then Constantinian, Rome (Chapter 1). Ousterhout demonstrates how, while Rome gradually became a Christian city, it preserved its ambiguous nature as a formerly pagan capital. Constantine (sole rule 324-337), who legalized Christianity when he was co-emperor in 313, also commissioned a number of buildings in the newly sanctified city of Jerusalem, and in his new capital, Constantinople, but the intent was rather different (Chapter 2). The emperor, whose mother visited Jerusalem in the late 320s, stressed the city's new religious identity, focusing on sites related to Christ's life. In contrast, Constantinople, which Constantine refounded in 324 (with a dedication ceremony in 330) and named after himself, had to be transformed into a new political capital (the ‘New Rome’), and this was possible only by accentuating its symbolic (and architectural) links with Rome. This established, O. moves to the connection between Early Christian buildings and human movement. Is it architecture that shapes the latter? Or does urban planning depend on function? Probably both, as O. demonstrates by analysing the forms of early Christian basilicas, baptisteries, burial monuments and monasteries (Chapter 3) and pilgrimage sites in Rome, Ravenna, Africa, Syria, Greece, Anatolia, and beyond (Chapter 4). Here O. makes the key point that – in contrast to the West – the typology of pilgrimage sites in the East never followed fixed models and was mainly a local phenomenon. With a focus on the makers, methods, materials (Chapter 5), and, in general, on people directly involved in building activity, and noting the importance of measurements and models, brick production, techniques, and the use of spolia, O. highlights the experimental nature of the architecture of the fourth to sixth centuries, which established the standards for the centuries to come. Thus, the book focuses on diverse regional developments within the Mediterranean frame (Chapter 6). The changes that involved the design of classical elements, such as the transformation of the classical Corinthian capital, for example, are emblematic of the new experimental architectural language; but overall, we see two main trends in plans: the diffusion both of centralized plans with the addition of a longitudinal axis and longitudinal plans with centralizing elements. This prepares readers for the chapters on architectural developments under Justinian (r. 527–565), most notably the Great Church, Hagia Sophia, rebuilt after the Nika Riots in 532. O. starts with Justinian's cities (such as Iustiniana Prima) and Late Antique urbanism in general (Chapter 7), and considers defence, water supply, and domestic architecture. He concentrates then on the significant contrast between the pagan past of most of the cities (notably, Athens, Ephesos, Thessaloniki) and their new Christian present, but underlines the continuity of the architectural forms with the Roman tradition. Nonetheless, respect for tradition does not exclude innovation or experimentation, especially in Constantinople (Chapter 8). Here, in relation to Hagia Sophia (Chapter 9), O. gives a clear account (without unnecessary jargon) of its uniqueness and grandeur, but also of its unresolved features and flaws. His analysis of Justinian's building activities then moves to the provinces (Chapter 10), where imported designs were often combined with local elements. In sum, the first section of Eastern Medieval Architecture clearly elucidates that, from the third to the sixth century, architecture in the East constantly oscillated between tradition and innovation, creating sometimes unique and often original results.
In the Transitional Period (Part II), Byzantine architecture underwent a radical transformation, because the nature of patronage, worship, and construction changed. The church gained an increasingly civic role and we find a diffusion of specific forms, such as the cross-in-square church plan (Chapter 11). Rather than presenting a typological approach that illustrates an evolution from domed basilica to cross-in-square – the reality was far more complicated than that – O. underlines how traditional forms were constantly recombined, with numerous variations, largely in response to changes in liturgy and patronage. After the sixth century, the liturgy gradually moved from a linear processional performance to a more circular one, largely due to the introduction of the ‘prothesis rite’. This, because it required a separate room near the altar, also ultimately resulted in the tripartite sanctuary becoming a standard feature of church plans. Across the seventh to ninth centuries, patronage was mainly private, and this led to architectural dynamics and outputs rather different from the previous centuries, above all in term of scale. (Since at least the publication of his seminal Master Builders, the significance of scale has long been one of O.'s main emphases, and he brings out its importance very neatly once again.) The local context remained important, and in fact became increasingly significant, as O. stresses in Chapter 12, where he underlines connections with the contemporaneous rise of Islam and related architecture. The impact of new building trends within local contexts, with their customs and independent regional developments, demonstrates, O. argues persuasively, that the lack of international trade and exchanges of the seventh to ninth centuries did not result in a lack of creativity.
Part III, devoted to the Middle Byzantine period (ninth to twelfth centuries) opens with the rise of monasticism, which, O. argues, acted as a major force within Middle Byzantine society. This had an impact on architecture (Chapter 13). Private patronage and post-iconoclast changes of worship practices brought a standardization of architectural forms (the cross-in-square plan becomes dominant) and decorative programmes, which, as a result, were more interconnected than ever before. However, as O. has already conclusively demonstrated, the presence of standard forms did not exclude local variations: Middle Byzantine architecture remained responsive and adaptable, accommodating diverse circumstances of patronage, siting, and workers. Moreover, some of the cities that had been abandoned in the transitional period now experienced an urban revival, mostly thanks to private patronage, since public money was mainly channelled to the defence and utilitarian buildings (Chapter 14). In part because of the impact of local taste, patterns of development in the provinces are markedly different from those of Constantinople, which retained a distinct and resolutely civic character, yet one receptive to influences from outside. Losses over time mean that Constantinopolitan Middle Byzantine architecture has to be explored mainly through churches, but the surviving buildings demonstrate an openness to stimuli and influences coming from Eastern neighbours, which, in turn, were receptive to Byzantine culture (Chapter 15). Middle Byzantine architecture was based on workshop practice, and the small scale of the buildings allowed innovations without particular problems or risks. O. simulates a journey into a Byzantine workshop (Chapter 16) to explore how techniques (and particularly the use of recessed brick), masonry, vault systems, brick production, and reuse of ancient material changed in the Middle Byzantine centuries. He then turns to regional developments. Thessaloniki reveals a local interpretation of Constantinopolitan models, but in other areas of Greece the assimilation of external, non-Constantinopolitan influences is visible, driven by a strong local tradition that has been called the ‘Helladic School’ (Chapter 17). Anatolia (Chapter 18) – and here O. concentrates on tenth- and eleventh Cappadocia – is quite distinct. Carved architectural details in rock-cut churches, which are not required for the static of the building, clearly imitate the forms of built models. These were often Constantinopolitan, but deviation from the prototypes was frequent. Tenth- and eleventh-century Armenian and Georgian architecture clearly demonstrates that innovation was not restricted to the Byzantine capital (Chapter 19): it is precisely in the Caucasus that certain forms flourished and then spread to other important centres, including Constantinople. If Georgian builders seem to prefer more traditional domed basilicas, Armenian patrons mostly favoured central designs: the gavit, which is the multifunctional forehall set on the western side of the church, is a good example of Armenian originality.
Architecture is a gauge of self-representation and cultural interactions, and this is particularly clear in the ‘contested lands’ under the Crusaders’ rule (Chapter 20). Buildings were identifiable signs of power. In the Crusader lands, we see the use of distinctive architectural features, often taken from Constantinopolitan, Romanesque, or Gothic prototypes. However, these features were distinguished from the local tradition and had to come to terms with a local labour force accustomed to its own regional standards. Italy provides a broadly related counterpoint (Chapter 21). Venice emphasised its connections with Byzantium (through the use of a similar architectural style and lexicon) to construct a legendary past. Other areas of the Italian peninsula, such as Sicily (before the Arab and then the Norman conquests), Calabria, Basilicata, and Apulia were at some point directly under Byzantine domination, though Rome (as represented by the Pope) regularly challenged Byzantine influence in these areas. The result, as represented by the architecture of southern Italy, demonstrates a pluralism that O. terms ‘pragmatic’. However, he invites us to distinguish style from construction techniques. The former can be imitated even centuries after, while the latter depends on specialized knowledge on the part of the builders, shared within the workshop. Thus, only the occurrence of Eastern techniques indicates the presence of Byzantine masons and artisans. And Constantinople indeed exported workers, architectural forms, and techniques, in part because this was an effective way to demonstrate its cultural capital. This is demonstrable in Bulgaria, Kievan Rus, and Serbia, which appear to have welcomed the connection with Constantinople and the Orthodox Church (Chapter 22). However, the process of assimilation of these influences differed from region to region. The association with Constantinopolitan architecture was stronger in Bulgaria than Serbia, where Constantinopolitan overtones intertwined with Italian Romanesque influence, probably due to the presence of builders from across the Adriatic. Kievan urban buildings, in contrast, recalled the Byzantine capital, and even the building technique was sometimes the same as in Constantinople. However, as O. carefully shows, the results vary, because – returning to a theme that is a leitmotif through the book – local traditions (and the requirements of local patrons) always impose themselves. In sum, in the third section of Eastern Medieval Architecture, O. teaches us how to deal with the traditional scholarly discourse ‘centre vs periphery’, by abandoning its customary and obsolete hierarchic slant.
The complicated thirteenth century opens the last section (Part IV) of Eastern Medieval Architecture (Chapter 23). The Crusades (and specifically the Fourth Crusade in 1204 that led to the Latin occupation of Constantinople) altered the power equilibrium of the Mediterranean and generated political instability. Notwithstanding the uncertainties, the rival entities which formed after the dissolution of the Byzantine empire at Nikaia, Epiros, the Morea, and Trebizond, shaped their ethnic identities (often negotiable and flexible identities) through building activity. Complexity in the architecture related to these sites is a sign of cultural interchange, but also an aesthetic choice. However, in 1261, Michael VIII Palaiologos re-conquered Constantinople, and the city enjoyed its last Byzantine flourishing before falling to the Ottoman Turks in 1453 (Chapter 24). Ousterhout analyses the re-building activity of Emperor Michael VIII (r. 1261–1282) and his son, Andronikos II (r.1282-1328), seeing the former as more focused on secular and urban infrastructure, while the latter concentrated on the religious sphere. In any case, building activity in Constantinople seems to cease around 1330, and, with the exception of the repairs to Hagia Sophia after the earthquake of 1346, it is possible to hypothesize that master builders moved to other more active centres, in, for example, Bulgaria and Greece. The latter offers a reasonably clear picture of inhabited landscape, urbanism, and secular architecture in the later centuries of Byzantium. Surviving material evidence allows a fuller understanding of the overall architectural landscape than we have for earlier centuries, since surviving buildings and architectural complexes are not restricted to the ecclesiastical sphere exclusively (Chapter 25). Thus, O. explores monastic communities of Athos and Meteora together with late medieval cities such as Mystras, Geraki, and the later urban development of Thessaloniki. He also continues his emphasis on regional diversity by analysing the later monuments of Bulgaria, Serbia, and Romania (Chapter 26). Bulgarian patrons continued to stress their connections to the capital, but this was now supplemented by a new emphasis on the decoration of wall surfaces. Under King Milutin (r. 1282–1321), Serbia strengthened its cultural link with Byzantium, and Byzantine craftsmen were often involved in Serbian constructions, working together with Western artisans, leading to the rise of the so-called Morava School at the end of the fourteenth century. Serbian architecture was the initial source of inspiration for Romanian builders, who later mixed this contribution with additional Western and Byzantine elements. This building type continued to flourish after the fall of Constantinople, with painted decoration that became increasingly elaborate and covered the exterior as well as the interior surfaces of the churches, many of which survive.
After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, both the Ottoman Empire and Russia, in different ways, made themselves heirs to its architectural legacy (Chapter 27). The origins of Ottoman architecture are unclear and probably combine the influence of both the Seljuks and the Byzantines. Certainly, the exposure of the Ottomans to Hagia Sophia influenced subsequent developments, as demonstrated by the Sultanic mosques of Istanbul or the activity of Mimar Sinan. Russian trajectories of the Byzantine legacy intertwine instead with influences from the Italian Renaissance, especially after (Zoe) Sophia Palaiologina's marriage to Ivan III, which was the starting point for both the importation of North Italian architects to Russia and the adoption of Byzantine court ceremonial. As with all the other local or regional examples O. considers, Russia built on the Byzantine heritage to develop its own original language: the Russian ‘onion dome’ is one of the most characteristic and iconic results, and has become almost a symbol of Orthodoxy. But the legacy of Byzantium endured after the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. In his epilogue, which focuses on the contemporary world, O. shows the impact of this heritage clearly and demonstrates that Byzantium was a prolific artistic source, from which cultures drew inspirations for centuries.
O.'s book has at least three main functions, which are related to the multiple layers of information that it contains. First, Medieval Eastern Architecture is the perfect textbook for those approaching Byzantine architecture for the first time. As O. reminds us in the introduction, Krautheimer's and Mango's handbooks of Byzantine architecture are now rather out of date, and do not particularly attract readers to deepen their knowledge of Byzantium. In contrast, O.'s book reads fluently, and shows the reader a wider and more variegated Byzantine world. The language of the Medieval Eastern Architecture is plain, the prose clear and readable. Even when the concepts are rather difficult to grasp, detailed explanation and abundant (and astonishing!) visual material punctually facilitates their understanding. Clearly, O. cannot offer extensive analysis of all individual cases or discuss exhaustive interpretations of specific contexts, but this was not the purpose of the book. The division into 27 almost equal chapters does sometimes result in simplifications, and there are occasional overlaps and repetitions but, after all, repetita iuvant. The relatively affordable price of the volume confirms that this is indeed the best introduction to Byzantine architecture.
Secondly, O. offers more advanced scholars a reference point for the monuments and topics treated: as he says in the introduction, Medieval Eastern Architecture can be used as a handbook. Most of the chapters cover aspects of O.'s specialisms (Constantinople, the Holy Sepulchre, Cappadocia, master builders, cultural overlaps, etc.) and give a linear synthesis of his forty years of research in the field of Byzantine architecture. Bibliography, though restricted to essential publications, is up-to-date.
Ultimately, O. provides us with a new way to think about our approaches to Byzantine architecture. The book covers over a millennium of architectural developments; it inserts them in a clear narrative and in articulate dialogue with each other, so that architecture is not just a grab-bag of material features combined at random. People make architecture for other people; buildings have multiple purposes; and there are infinite perspectives from which to look at and analyse a monument., O. suggests several ways to approach Eastern Medieval Architecture, as is clear from the titles and diverse content of the chapters: from a material point of view, from its intersection with the landscape or cityscape, from its function or the intent of its patron, and in terms of how it engages in a visual dialogue with its cultural and social context. Approaching Byzantine architecture through O.'s eyes dissolves old conventional boundaries, and new possibilities emerge. This broad vision is useful for those scholars, even experienced ones, who specifically focus on a single monument or aspect for research purposes. Sometimes we blur the focus on the greater picture when absorbed by the detail; we miss the forest for the trees. This book invites us to use a wide-angle lens. O. did not foresee this third function in his introduction – or at least, he did not make it explicit – but this book physically embodies the gigantic impact that his work has had (and will have) on generations of specialists in Byzantine architecture, and on other readers too.
