2.1. Flapping kinematics

A flapping NACA0012 airfoil with combined pitching–heaving kinematics is considered for the present unsteady simulations and the governing kinematic equations are given by

(2.1a,b)\begin{equation} y(t) = A \sin (2 {\rm \pi}f t);\quad \alpha(t) = \alpha_0 \sin (2 {\rm \pi}f t + \phi). \end{equation}

Here, $A$ is the heave amplitude, $\alpha _0$ is the pitch amplitude and $f$ is the oscillation frequency. Note that the phase difference between the pitch and heave motions ($\phi$) has been considered to be zero in the present study. A schematic of the prescribed flapping motion is presented in figure 1. Equation (2.1a,b) can be non-dimensionalised as

(2.2a,b)\begin{equation} \bar{y}(t) = h \sin (\kappa \tau);\quad \bar{\alpha}(t) = \alpha_0 \sin (\kappa \tau + \phi). \end{equation}

The corresponding non-dimensional parameters are defined as follows: reduced frequency $\kappa = 2{\rm \pi} fc/U_{\infty }$, non-dimensional time $\tau = tU_{\infty }/c$, non-dimensional heaving amplitude $h=A/c$ and Reynolds number $Re = U_{\infty }c/\nu$, amplitude-based Strouhal number $St_A = fA/U_\infty$ and chord-based Strouhal number $St_c = fc/U_\infty$, where $c$ is the chord length, $U_{\infty }$ is the free stream velocity and $\nu$ is the kinematic viscosity. The unsteady flow past a simultaneously pitching–heaving wing is simulated for various $h$ values ranging from moderate to high value ($0.5 \leqslant h \leqslant 1.25$) at $\kappa =2$, $\alpha _0 = 15^\circ$ and $Re=1000$. The chosen parameter values enable us studying the role of the leading-edge separation on the dynamical transition in the flow field at the high amplitude and low frequency regime.

Figure 1.

Schematic of the prescribed pitching–heaving airfoil motion.

2.2. Governing equation and solver details

The flow is modelled by incompressible N–S equations and are solved in an arbitrary Lagrangian–Eulerian-based framework (known as ALE) (Ferziger & Peric Reference Ferziger and Peric2002), involving a time-varying computational domain. A radial basis function (known as RBF) interpolation-based (Bos, Van Oudheusden & Bijl Reference Bos, Van Oudheusden and Bijl2013) mesh motion strategy has been used here. The N–S equations, cast into arbitrary Lagrangian–Eulerian, are given by

(2.3)\begin{gather} \boldsymbol{\nabla} \boldsymbol{\cdot}\boldsymbol{u} =0 , \end{gather}

(2.4)\begin{gather}\frac{\partial \boldsymbol{u}}{\partial {t}} + [(\boldsymbol{u} - \boldsymbol{u}^m)\boldsymbol{\cdot} \boldsymbol{\nabla}] \boldsymbol{u} = -\boldsymbol{\nabla} {p}/\rho +\nu \nabla^2 \boldsymbol{u}. \end{gather}

Here, $\boldsymbol {u}$ is the velocity of the flow, $\boldsymbol {u}^m$ is the grid point velocity, $p$ and $\rho$ are, respectively, the fluid pressure and density.

The forced flapping simulations of a rigid airfoil are performed using an unsteady incompressible N–S solver ‘icoDymFoam’ from an extended version of the finite-volume based open-source computational fluid dynamics package OpenFOAM – foam-extend-3.0 (Jasak et al. Reference Jasak, Jemcov and Tukovic2007). The spatial and temporal discretization, used in the present solver, are second-order accurate. A second-order implicit backward differencing scheme is used for the temporal discretization along with a maximum Courant-number-based variable time-stepping method. A pressure implicit with splitting of operator (known as PISO) algorithm (Ferziger & Peric Reference Ferziger and Peric2002) with a predictor step and three pressure correction loops has been used to couple the pressure and velocity equations. A preconditioned conjugate gradient (known as PCG) iterative solver is used to solve the pressure equation where a diagonal incomplete-Cholesky (known as DIC) method is used for preconditioning. A preconditioned bi-conjugate gradient (known as PBiCG) solver is used to solve the pressure–velocity coupling equation and the diagonal incomplete-LU method is used for preconditioning. The absolute error tolerance criteria for pressure and velocity are set to $10^{-6}$.

2.3. Computational domain and boundary conditions

A circular computational domain is chosen for the present study – see the schematic of the computational domain in figure 2(a). A zero pressure gradient and a constant free stream are considered at the inlet; whereas a zero velocity gradient and atmospheric pressure condition are imposed at the outlet. Besides, no-slip and zero normal pressure gradient conditions are considered on the horizontal walls and the airfoil surface – the latter is considered to be a moving wall.

Figure 2.

(a) Computational domain for the analysis (not to scale); domain size independence study for (b) $C_l$ and (c) $C_d$; (d) comparison of the flow field for three different domain sizes.

The size of the computational domain has been chosen based on a domain independence study to ensure that the present results are insensitive to an increase in the domain size. The time histories of $C_l$ and $C_d$ at $\kappa = 2$, $h = 0.6$ and $\alpha _0 = 15^\circ$ have been compared for three different domain sizes with radius = 20c (domain 1), 25c (domain 2) and 30c (domain 3) – see figures 2(b) and 2(c). It is seen that the results, obtained using domain 1, show a slight deviation in the ‘kink’ regions compared with those obtained using domain 2 and domain 3. However, the time histories of both $C_l$ and $C_d$, obtained using domain 2, show an excellent match with the results of domain 3. The flow field comparisons, presented in figure 2(d), also show a good agreement with each other. Based on these observations, domain 2 has been chosen for further computations in the present study. It is also verified that the results obtained using the chosen domain are not affected by the imposed pressure boundary condition at the outlet. This is achieved through a comparison of the present results with those obtained using a zero pressure gradient boundary condition at the outlet (results are not presented here for the sake of brevity).

The computational domain is discretized using unstructured grids. Figure 3(a) shows a close-up view of the mesh around the airfoil. For better visualization of the boundary layer discretization, the zoomed view of the mesh around the leading-edge and trailing-edge have been presented in figures 3(b) and 3(c), respectively. A grid independence test has been performed by comparing the aerodynamic lift and thrust coefficients $C_l$ and $C_t$, instantaneous velocity ($U/U_\infty$) at ($x/c =2, y/c =0$) and instantaneous velocity profile at $x/c = 2, t/T = 10$, using grids of different resolutions to finalize the mesh, and the results are presented in figures 3(d), 3(e), 3(f) and 3(g), respectively. The results with 400 grid points on the airfoil show an excellent match with those obtained using the 600 grid points mesh for all four quantities. Consequently, the mesh with 400 grid points on the airfoil (containing 0.36 million grid points in total) is chosen for further analysis. The quantitative values and the corresponding relative errors with respect to the chosen mesh are presented in table 1.

Figure 3.

(a) Close-up view of the computational grid around the airfoil; zoomed view of the mesh around (b) the leading-edge (inset ‘A’) and (c) the trailing-edge (inset ‘B’); grid independence results for (d) $C_l$, (e) $C_t$; (f) instantaneous velocity time-history at $x/c = 2, y/c = 0$; and (g) instantaneous velocity profile at $x/c = 2, t/T = 10$. The legends in panels (d–g) indicate the number of points on the airfoil surface.

Table 1.

Results of grid independence study (% relative error). The abbreviation RMS stands for root mean square.

2.4. Validation of the solver

The unsteady flow solver has been extensively validated both qualitatively and quantitatively for pure heaving as well as pure pitching kinematics by comparing the results of present computations with experimental studies available in the literature – see Bose & Sarkar (Reference Bose and Sarkar2018). Figure 4 presents the qualitative validation of the flow solver in terms of a comparison of the trailing-edge wake patterns of a heaving airfoil obtained from the present computations with results from the dye flow visualization available in Jones et al. (Reference Jones, Dohring and Platzer1998) for two different $\kappa h$ values. Figures 4(a) and 4(b) show the comparison of wake vorticity contours for $\kappa =3$ and $h=0.2$ ($\kappa h=0.60$). The present computational results corroborate the experimental results in capturing the reverse Kármán vortex street. A similar comparison is presented for a higher non-dimensional heave velocity case for $\kappa =12.5$ and $h=0.12$ ($\kappa h = 1.50$) in figures 4(c) and 4(d). A deflected vortex street is observed for such high non-dimensional heave velocities ($\kappa h>1.00$). A close agreement is seen between the computational and experimental flow patterns in this case, as well.

Figure 4.

A comparison of the vorticity contours from the present computation (a,c) with the dye flow visualization results obtained by Jones et al. (Reference Jones, Dohring and Platzer1998) (b,d) for a heaving airfoil with kinematic parameters: $\kappa h=0.60$, $h=0.20$ (a,b) and $\kappa h=1.50$, $h=0.12$ (c,d). (Permission to reproduce the experimental frames has been obtained from the authors.)

The present solver has also been qualitatively validated in the periodic as well as the chaotic regime in terms of phase-averaged vorticity fields, by comparing with the two-dimensional experimental results of Lentink et al. (Reference Lentink, Van Heijst, Muijres and Van Leeuwen2010) – see figure 5. The comparison for the chaotic case is presented close to the onset of chaos at $\kappa h = 2.1$, with the experimental result that is available nearest to the onset. The phase-averaged vorticity fields from the experimental results of Lentink et al. (Reference Lentink, Van Heijst, Muijres and Van Leeuwen2010) are shown in figures 5(a) and 5(b), respectively. For the numerical simulations, the phase-averaged vorticity contours are obtained by averaging the flow field snapshots over the same time interval and presented in figures 5(c) and 5(d), corresponding to $\kappa h = 1.25$ and $2.1$, respectively. A crisp pattern, as observed in figures 5(a) and 5(c) for $\kappa h = 1.25$ (with $\alpha _0 = 0^\circ$), results due to repeating flow-structures in the consecutive cycles, and thus is representative of periodic dynamics. On the other hand, a blurry pattern is observed for $\kappa h$ = 2.1 (with $\alpha _0 = 15^\circ$) in figures 5(b) and 5(d), indicating loss of periodicity due to unpredictable chaotic interactions in the wake. The phase-averaged vorticity field for $\kappa h = 2.5$ (with $\alpha _0 = 15^\circ$) also shows a qualitatively similar blurry pattern, representative of chaos (not shown here for the sake of brevity). The numerical predictions are seen to match the experimental results qualitatively, having a reasonable agreement on the onset of aperiodicity as well. Nevertheless, a direct one-to-one comparison cannot be made here since the experiments were carried out with an elliptic airfoil, having 5 % relative thickness. Note that both the studies are carried out at $Re = 10^3$.

Figure 5.

Phase-averaged vorticity contours at different non-dimensional heaving velocities ($kh$). Images in panels (a,b) are from the soap film experiments by Lentink et al. (Reference Lentink, Van Heijst, Muijres and Van Leeuwen2010). Images in panels (c,d) are results from the present computations. The experimental parameters are (a) $\kappa = 1.25$, $h = 1$, $\kappa h = 1.25$, $\alpha _0 = 0^\circ$; (b) $\kappa = 2.094$, $h = 1$, $\kappa h = 2.094$, $\alpha _0 = 15^\circ$. The present simulation parameters are (c) $\kappa = 1.25$, $h = 1$, $\kappa h = 1.25$, $\alpha _0 = 0^\circ$; (d) $\kappa = 2$, $h = 1.05$, $\kappa h = 2.1$, $\alpha _0 = 15^\circ$ (Permission has been obtained to reproduce the experimental results from the publishers of the original work).

A quantitative validation study has been performed for a pure heaving case for high values of $\kappa h$ (up to $\kappa h \sim 1.9$), where the drag coefficient ($C_d$) has been compared with the experimental measurements of Cleaver, Wang & Gursul (Reference Cleaver, Wang and Gursul2012) at $Re = 10\,000$ – see figure 6(a). Additionally, a combined pitching–heaving kinematics case has also been used for quantitative validation, by comparing with the thrust coefficients from the recent experimental results of Van Buren et al. (Reference Van Buren, Floryan and Smits2019). The authors carried out experimental force measurements for a teardrop airfoil for various amplitudes and frequencies in a water tunnel at $Re = 8000$. Figure 6(b) shows the comparison of the time-averaged thrust coefficients for different non-dimensional frequencies $f^*$ (${=}fc/U_\infty$), for $\alpha _0 = 15^{\circ }$ and $h=0.25$ ($h_0 = 20 \ \mathrm {mm}$). The present computational results show very good agreement with the experimental results for both the cases.

Figure 6.

(a) Comparison of drag coefficient ($C_d$) with the experimental measurements of Cleaver et al. (Reference Cleaver, Wang and Gursul2012) for a heaving airfoil at $Re = 1 \times 10^4$; (b) comparison of time-averaged thrust coefficients ($\bar {C}_T$) with the experimental measurements of Van Buren et al. (Reference Van Buren, Floryan and Smits2019) for a simultaneously pitching–heaving airfoil with $\alpha _0 = 15^{\circ }$, $h = 0.25 \ (h_0 = 20 \ \mathrm {mm})$, $Re = 8\times 10^3$.

3.1. $\kappa h = 1.00$ and 1.40: periodic near-field and deflected reverse Kármán wakes

Figure 8(a) presents the time history of $C_d$ at $h =0.50$ ($\kappa h = 1.00$) which shows a constant amplitude regular oscillatory behaviour indicative of periodic dynamics in the near-field. In order to reveal the system attractors, the pseudo-phase-portraits are reconstructed from the scalar time series of $C_d$. The time-delay reconstruction of the pseudo-phase-space is performed using Takens’ embedding theorem (Takens Reference Takens1981). The method of time delay involves obtaining a series of independent time-delayed vectors representing the system dynamics from a single time series data based on an optimum time delay (say $\tau$) and the minimum embedding dimension (say $m$) of the system. The reconstruction matrix ($Y$) can be expressed as $Y = [C_d(t)\ C_d(t+\tau )\ C_d(t+2\tau )\ldots C_d(t+(m-1)\tau )]$. The value of $\tau$ is determined using the method of mutual information (Fraser & Swinney Reference Fraser and Swinney1986) by calculating the average mutual information between the original and the time delayed vectors. The required value of $m$ is computed using the method of false neighbourhood (Kennel, Brown & Abarbanel Reference Kennel, Brown and Abarbanel1992) by checking whether the distance between two points in the phase space is invariant with increasing dimension. Time series analysis has been carried out on sufficiently long-time simulations (approximately 80 flapping cycles) to establish the correct dynamical state, the first 10 cycles of which have been neglected to ensure that the cycles with transient effects are not included in the analysis. The reconstructed phase portrait at $h = 0.50$ (figure 8b) represents a closed one-dimensional attractor characterizing the periodic nature of the dynamics. The corresponding frequency spectra consists of a dominant frequency $f1$ (double the flapping frequency) and its superharmonics (see figure 8c), thus confirming the periodic state.

Figure 8.

Time series analyses of $C_d$ at $\kappa h = 1.00$ for the periodic regime: (a) time history; (b) phase portrait; (c) frequency spectra.

In the corresponding flow field, the periodic vortex interactions in the near-field results in a reverse Kármán street. It is an outcome of the alternate shedding of isolated vortices with opposite sense of rotation in every half-cycle. The corresponding vorticity and bFTLE contours are shown in figures 9(a) and 9(b), respectively. Note that a reverse Kármán wake is a signature of thrust generation by the flapping foil with zero mean lift. With increase in $\kappa h$, the spatial symmetry of the reverse Kármán wake is lost giving rise to a deflected reverse Kármán wake at $h = 0.70$ ($\kappa h = 1.40$). In the present case, the deflection is observed in the downward direction – see the corresponding vorticity and bFTLE contours in figures 9(c) and 9(d), respectively. The deflected wake remains stable at the far-field (confirmed through a sufficiently long time history of the simulation) in this dynamical state. It must be noted that a secondary vortex street is also formed at the same time, and is deflected in the upward direction. It consists of a series of clockwise (CW) vortices of much weaker strengths compared with those in the downward deflected primary vortex street (see figure 9d). Note that the dynamical signature of the deflected reverse Kármán wake is also periodic at $\kappa h = 1.40$. The time scales related to the secondary vortex-street are ascribed to the superharmonics of the shedding frequency of the immediate vortex couple, which is same as the flapping frequency.

Figure 9.

Wake characteristics in the periodic regime: (a,b) symmetric reverse BvK wake at $\kappa h = 1.00$; (c,d) asymmetric deflected wake at $\kappa h = 1.40$. The present colourmap of vorticity contours (with a range of $-10$ to 10) has been used in the rest of the paper. (a) Vorticity contour at $t/T = 60$; (b) LCS (bFTLE contours) at $t/T = 60$; (c) vorticity contour at $t/T = 60$; (d) LCS (bFTLE contours) at $t/T = 60$.

3.2. $\kappa h = 1.60$: quasi-periodic near-field and switching of deflection direction at the far end of the wake

With further increase in $h$, the near-field is seen to attain a quasi-periodic state through small phase lags in the leading-edge separation behaviour from one cycle to another. Time history of $C_d$ showing a modulating oscillation at $h =0.80$ ($\kappa h =1.60$) is indicative of quasi-periodic behaviour and is in contrast to the previous periodic case – see figure 10(a). The corresponding reconstructed pseudo-phase-portrait takes a toroidal shape (figure 10b) which is indicative of a quasi-periodic attractor. Besides, the presence of two incommensurate frequencies ($f1$ and $f2$) along with the presence of other non-harmonic frequencies, that are in linear combinations of these two, further establishes the existence of a quasi-periodic dynamics – see figure 10(c).

Figure 10.

Time series analyses of $C_d$ at $\kappa h = 1.60$ for the quasi-periodic regime: (a) time history; (b) phase portrait; (c) frequency spectra.

In this parametric regime, the wake that remained deflected downwards during the periodic regime gradually begins to lose its downward structure at its far end during the 15th flapping cycle. The vorticity contours, presented in figure 11, show the corresponding wake patterns at different flapping cycles. Initially, the wake is deflected completely downward (figure 11a) until at the 15th cycle a switch in its deflection direction is noticed at the far end of the wake (see figure 11b). The vortex street still remains deflected downward near the trailing-edge and as a result, it takes an arc-like shape. To understand this transition better, the individual motion paths of three consecutive trailing-edge couples, namely the $C_{13}$, $C_{14}$ and $C_{15}$ which are formed at the start of the $13\textrm {th}$, $14\textrm {th}$ and $15\textrm {th}$ cycles, respectively, are tracked – see figure 12. It is seen that $C_{13}$ follows a straight downward deflected path until it gets dissipated in the far-field; $C_{14}$ initially traverses in the downward direction but gradually switches its direction at the far end of the wake during the $15\textrm {th}$ cycle; $C_{15}$ undergoes a similar switching behaviour. However, the latter's path is different with a higher upward deflection angle compared with $C_{14}$ at the far end. The subsequent primary couples continue to switch the deflection direction in a similar fashion at the far end but with small deviations in their upward deflection angles. After that, the wake remains stable in its switched state with an arc shape and no further switch in the deflection direction is observed. This has been confirmed by running the simulations through long time windows (carried out until $t/T = 70$). The overall mechanism of the formation of the immediate vortex couple at the trailing-edge remains very similar in each cycle with only minor deviations. These deviations are the result of small phase lags in the separation behaviour of the LEVs and the subsequent near-field interactions, from one cycle to another, that show up as quasi-periodic dynamics in the near-field behaviour and the load patterns. The detailed analysis of the emergence of quasi-periodic trigger and the underlying role of LEV was discussed in Bose & Sarkar (Reference Bose and Sarkar2018).

Figure 11.

The change in the deflection pattern of a downward deflected wake at the far end of the wake during different flapping cycles at $\kappa h = 1.60$ with $t/T =10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50$ in panels (a–i), respectively.

Figure 12.

Comparison of motion trajectories of three consecutive primary vortex couples ($C_{13}$, $C_{14}$ and $C_{15}$) during far-end switching of the wake at $\kappa h = 1.60$.

As a result, the arc-shaped wake shows minor deviation from one cycle to another, and the wakes stay in each other's neighbourhood – see figure 13(a–h). A superposition of the centrelines of the wake for different flapping cycles ($15\textrm {th}\text {--}50\textrm {th}$), shown in figure 13(i), reveals that the path line of these couples are not unique and the upward deflection angle of the vortex street in the far-end changes slightly from one cycle to another. This highlights the quasi-periodic tendency present in the wake deflection behaviour.

Figure 13.

(a–h) The shape of the wake at $\kappa h = 1.60$ for different flapping cycles ($15\textrm {th}\text {--}50\textrm {th}$); (i) superposition of the centrelines of the spatial shapes of the wake for different flapping cycles ($15\textrm {th}\text {--}50\textrm {th}$) at $\kappa h = 1.60$ showing the quasi-periodic signature.

Figures 14(a) and 14(b) present the LCS (in terms of bFTLE contours) of the deflected patterns before and after the far-end switching, respectively. Note that an organized secondary vortex street consisting of a series of CW vortex pairs is observed, while the primary wake is deflected downward – this is shown at $t/T = 10$, in figure 14(a). Minor deviations in the near-field interactions between the LEV and the TEV, owing to quasi-periodicity, are seen to propagate through the secondary vortex street in terms of a phase lag in the formation of consecutive vortex pairs. For a better understanding, one such typical sequence of interactions is presented in figure 15. Although the far-wake switching (FWS) is first observed in the 15th cycle, the gradual propagation of the underlying quasi-periodic trigger starts at an earlier flapping cycle, hence, the chronology of vortex interactions during the 12th cycle is presented in figure 15. The quasi-periodic trigger, that emerged from the leading-edge shedding and the subsequent LEV–TEV interactions, gets propagated in the far-wake through the forward motion of the immediate vortex couple, as well as through a series of interactions among the secondary vortex structures generated in the near-field. As the immediate vortex couple $\boldsymbol {C}'$ moves forward with the free stream, the trailing-edge vortex filament entailed with the vortex couple gets strained and eventually gets split into small isolated CW vortices – SV1 and SV2 – in the near-wake due to the stronger CW counterparts of $\boldsymbol {C}'$ – see figure 15(b,c). As can be seen from figure 15(c), the motion of SV1 is initially governed by the resultant velocity induced by the previously existing same-sense secondary vortex SV0, as well as the opposite-sense TEV, and is inversely proportional to their corresponding normal distances $r1$ and $r2$, respectively. The opposite-sense TEV tries to form a couple with SV1, whereas, same-sense SV0 applies a CW rotational velocity on it. Subsequently, another LEV is shed as a vortex couple $\boldsymbol {C}''$, which becomes another influencing factor. The anticlockwise (ACW) component of $\boldsymbol {C}''$ undergoes a partial merging with the TEV and the CW counterpart interacts with SV1 – see figure 15(f). Eventually, SV1 moves with its resultant velocity and participate in forming the secondary vortex street with the existing array of CW vortex pairs. Therefore, the formation of the secondary vortex street indirectly depends on the LEV–TEV interactions. It is worthwhile to mention that this chronology of events changes by a small margin in every flapping cycle due to quasi-periodicity, which in turn changes the resultant velocity of the secondary vortices. Consequently, a phase lag is induced in the formation of subsequent vortex pairs, which eventually results in multiple merging among the vortex pairs in the secondary vortex-street. This leads to a gradual destruction of the secondary vortex-street, which can be seen from the sequence of interactions during 10 consecutive cycles from $t/T = 10$ to $t/T = 20$, presented in figure 16. As a result, a region of disturbance is created in the far end of the wake that influences the vortex couples to switch their deflection direction in that region. This can be considered as one of the mechanisms of FWS.

Figure 14.

The bFTLE contours at $\kappa h = 1.60$ with (a) $t/T = 10$, (b) $t/T = 20$. The colourmap of bFTLE contour is same as that of figure 9.

Figure 15.

A typical sequence of near-field interactions in the 12th cycle affecting the formation of a CW vortex pair in the secondary vortex street.

Figure 16.

Transition in the secondary vortex street at $\kappa h = 1.60$. Here $t/T = 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20$ in panels (a–k), respectively.

Wei & Zheng (Reference Wei and Zheng2014) also observed a similar far-end switching for a heaving airfoil at a regime of high reduced frequency ($k = 20$) and a small amplitude ($h = 0.06$). However, the quasi-periodic signature of the switching phenomenon and the presence of the secondary vortex street and the associated transitions were not observed by the authors. A vortex interaction mechanism in the far-wake, termed as ‘opposite vortex pairing process’, characterized by exchange of partners among consecutive couples, was said to be responsible for the far-end switching. The authors further reported that, as the distance between consecutive couples decreases while the distance between the opposite sense partners in each couple increases, a more favourable condition for this mechanism to take place is created. However, this observation seems to be applicable only for the high frequency and low amplitude cases where the distance between couples are less, and wake formation is primarily a trailing-edge phenomenon without much contribution from the LEVs. In fact, well-formed LEVs are either absent (Wei & Zheng Reference Wei and Zheng2014; Shinde & Arakeri Reference Shinde and Arakeri2013) or are mostly dissipated by their interactions with the subsequent nascent LEVs (Lewin & Haj-Hariri Reference Lewin and Haj-Hariri2003) for these high frequency and low amplitude cases. The present study does not fall under this parametric range and no such opposite vortex pairing process has been observed here. Rather, the primary trigger for the far-end switching comes from the minor deviations in the quasi-periodic near-field interactions between the LEV and the TEV that is propagated through the transition in the secondary vortex street. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this kind of quasi-periodic switching in the wake of a pitching–heaving system is being reported for the first time in the present study.

3.3. $\kappa h$ = 1.66: appearance of intermittency and switching of the immediate vortex couple

As the value of $h$ is further increased to $h = 0.83$ ($\kappa h = 1.66$), the quasi-periodic signature starts to get interspersed with irregular windows of chaos. Such temporal patterns of response are reported as intermittency in the nonlinear dynamics literature (Hilborn Reference Hilborn2000), in which the system irregularly switches between two different attractors or dynamical states. In this case, the switch happens between the state of quasi-periodicity and chaos. The sporadic bursts of aperiodic windows are expected to become longer as the parameter value ($h$) increases gradually. The intermittent aperiodic windows appear due to the stronger perturbations coming from the leading-edge separation resulting in nonlinear interactions among the near-field flow-structures. The time history of $C_d$ at $h = 0.83$, presented in figure 17(a), shows a typical intermittent state where the insets ‘A1’, ‘B1’, ‘C1’ and ‘D1’ denote the sporadic aperiodic windows. A better understanding of the temporal evolution of the frequency content is possible from the scalogram obtained through the wavelet analysis using the Morlet wavelet function (Grossmann, Kronland-Martinet & Morlet Reference Grossmann, Kronland-Martinet and Morlet1990) – see figure 17(b). Sporadic bursts of broadband frequencies that correspond to the aperiodic windows are clearly seen from the wavelet spectra – see inlet sections ‘A1’, ‘B1’, ‘C1’ and ‘D1’ in figure 17(b). The time history and the wavelet spectra of $C_d$ at a higher $h$ of 0.85 ($\kappa h = 1.70$), presented in figures 17(c) and 17(d), respectively, show that such aperiodic windows (‘A2’, ‘B2’, ‘C2’ and ‘D2’ in this case) are significantly longer and more frequent than that of the previous case ($h =0.83$). As $h$ increases further and reaches a threshold, the entire time window turns aperiodic and the response becomes completely chaotic.

Figure 17.

Time series analyses of $C_d$ at $\kappa h = 1.66$ and $\kappa h = 1.70$: intermittent dynamics; the aperiodic window is marked as ‘Z’. (a) Time history of drag coefficient ($C_d$) at $\kappa h = 1.66$. (b) Wavelet spectra of drag coefficient ($C_d$) at $\kappa h = 1.66$. (c) Time history of drag coefficient ($C_d$) at $\kappa h = 1.70$. (d) Wavelet spectra of drag coefficient ($C_d$) at $\kappa h = 1.70$. (e) Phase portrait of $C_d$ at $\kappa h = 1.70$. (f) Frequency spectra of $C_d$ at $\kappa h = 1.70$.

The reconstructed pseudo-phase-portraits and the frequency spectra for the intermittent state at $h = 0.85$ ($\kappa h = 1.70$) are presented in figures 17(e) and 17(f), respectively. The appearance of small regions of aperiodic evolution of the trajectory in the otherwise toroidal phase portrait is clear. However, these characteristics of intermittency are not captured in the frequency spectra as it reflects an average quasi-periodic behaviour of the system. The existence of intermittency can be conclusively established using RPs (Eckmann & Ruelle Reference Eckmann and Ruelle1985; Marwan et al. Reference Marwan, Carmen Romano, Thiel and Kurths2007). The changes in the dynamical signature of a system are revealed very easily through the visual representation of RPs. Also, RPs bring out meaningful results even from relatively short time data unlike the conventional time series tools which require sufficiently long time histories for the convergence of the respective algorithms. Recurrence plots are constructed from a binary recurrence matrix, $R_{i,j} = \varTheta (\epsilon - ||x_i -x_j||); i,j = 1,2,3..N$, for a phase space with $N$ points. Here, $x_i$ is a point in the ‘$d$’-dimensional phase space, $\varTheta$ is the Heaviside step function, $\epsilon$ is a predefined threshold and $||\cdot ||$ indicates the $L_2$ norm. The graphical representation of RPs are sensitive to the threshold $\epsilon$; an optimal value of $\epsilon$ needs to be chosen to represent the dynamics accurately. In the present calculations, $\epsilon$ is chosen to be 10 % of the diameter of the reconstructed phase space. The diameter refers to the distance between the two farthest points in the phase space. $R_{i,j}$ is considered to be zero if the distance between the two points $x_i$ and $x_j$ in the phase space is greater than $\epsilon$, or else it is equal to unity. The RP contains black and white points corresponding to the ones and zeros of the recurrence matrix, respectively. The RP for the $C_d$ time history at $h = 0.85$ ($\kappa h = 1.70$) is presented in figure 18, which clearly reflects the intermittent transition through alternative windows with different characteristics over the main diagonal. There are sporadic aperiodic windows over the main diagonal (one such is marked as ‘Z’) consisting of mostly small broken lines. This is indicative of the non-recurrent signature corresponding to the aperiodic dynamics and is in contrast to the periodic signature, which comprises of equidistant solid diagonal lines parallel to the primary diagonal.

Figure 18.

RP of $C_d$ at $\kappa h = 1.70$.

The most important outcome of intermittency on the flow field is the switching of the immediate vortex couple at the trailing-edge which is triggered by the aperiodic bursts. During these bursts, the wake goes through an aperiodic breakdown resulting in spontaneous and arbitrary movements of vortex couples in different directions before reorganizing itself into a fully deflected pattern of the opposite direction. As discussed before, in the quasi-periodic state ($\kappa h = 1.60$), the near-field disturbances are propagated mainly through the secondary vortex street in terms of minor deviations in its pairing process and these disturbances deflect the wake at its far end giving it an arc shape. The intermittent transition does not, however, follow the same mechanism. Instead, the aperiodic interactions during the intermittent chaotic bursts provide quick and strong disturbance at the region immediately close to the body (trailing-edge) which flips the deflection direction of the immediate couple. This eventually makes the whole wake follow the same flipped direction and a fully reversed (upward or downward) wake is obtained. However, when the aperiodic window ends, far-end switching slowly starts to take place after experiencing the expected quasi-periodic trigger from the near-field giving rise to an arc-shaped wake. The next aperiodic burst flips the immediate couple again and the whole wake follows that signature and thus the process continues. To summarize, four different wake patterns are observed at different flapping cycles in the dynamical state of intermittency – see figure 19. Figure 19(a) is indicative of a downward deflected wake pattern ${D}$ at $t/T = 30$. A concave and a convex arc-shaped far-wake switched wake – FWS DU and FWS UD – are observed at $t/T = 32$ and $65$, respectively; see figures 19(b) and 19(c). Figures 19(d) and 19(e) present an aperiodic ${A}$ and an upward deflected ${U}$ wake pattern, respectively, at $t/T = 35$ and $42$. Therefore, the jet-switching phenomenon does not take place directly from the ${D}$ to the ${U}$ wake and vice versa, rather, it is associated with different intermediate transitional wake patterns (FWS and ${A}$). For example, a ${D}$ wake undergoes a complete reversal of its deflection direction that results in a ${U}$ wake, after evolving through FWS DU and ${A}$ wakes in the process. Subsequently, the ${U}$ wake transitions back to a ${D}$ wake through the sequence of FWS UD and ${A}$ patterns.

Figure 19.

Vorticity contours corresponding to different transitional wake patterns at $\kappa h = 1.66$: (a) downward deflected (${D}$); (b) far-wake switched downward at the near-field and upward at the far-field (FWS-DU); (c) aperiodic (${A}$); (d) upward deflected (${U}$) and (e) far-wake switched upward at the near-field and downward at the far-field (FWS-UD). Here $t/T = 30, 32, 35, 42, 65$ in panels (a–e), respectively.

Figure 20 connects the spatial transitions that take place in the far-wake in terms of the occurrence of these four wake-patterns. The figure shows that the direction flipping of the immediate couple, accompanied by intermediate FWS and ${A}$ wake patterns, happens in an irregular fashion. This observation is in contrast with Heathcote & Gursul (Reference Heathcote and Gursul2007) who reported a quasi-periodic pattern in their observed gradual switching of the deflected jet. Note that Heathcote & Gursul (Reference Heathcote and Gursul2007) only reported ${D}$ and ${U}$ wakes and transitions between them. Far-wake switching was not observed in their study. Moreover, the authors did not analyse this immediate couple switching phenomenon from a dynamical perspective either, as has been carried out in the present study with an objective of establishing the overall transition route. It is also observed that FWS wakes can evolve into ${A}$ patterns during the aperiodic bursts, only if the aperiodic window is long enough to flip the immediate couple. One such window is marked as ‘C1’ in the drag time-history in figure 17(a). In this case, the organization of the entire wake breaks down to an ${A}$ pattern (figure 19c) before reorganizing itself into the ${U}$ wake (figure 19d). Conversely, the immediate couple switching may not take place if the aperiodic bursts are short, such as ‘A1’ (around $t/T = 15$), ‘B1’ (around $t/T = 22$) or ‘D1’ (around $t/T = 48$) as marked in figure 17(a). In these cases, the aperiodic perturbations in the near-field are not sufficiently strong due to their short presence to flip the immediate couple and the wake regains the FWS pattern after a small windows of aperiodicity (${A}$) – see figure 20.

Figure 20.

Different transitional wake patterns versus number of flapping cycles: ${U}$, upward deflected, ${A}$, aperiodic and ${D}$, downward deflected. The numbers over the boxes denote the duration in terms of the number of flapping cycles ($\kappa h = 1.66$); ‘A1’, ‘B1’, ‘C1’, ‘D1’ are windows of aperiodic bursts as marked in figure 17(a).

To understand how the ${A}$ pattern kicks in, the motion paths of the immediate couples are followed between $t/T = 32$ to $t/T = 35$, where the wake follows an FWS pattern just before the start of aperiodic window ‘C1’. The main vortex couples are $C_{32}$, $C_{33}$, $C_{34}$ and $C_{35}$, formed as the immediate couples at the start of $32\mathrm {nd}$, $33\mathrm {rd}$, $34\mathrm {th}$ and $35\mathrm {th}$ cycles, respectively. The vortex couple $C_{32}$ initially follows a downward path in the $32\mathrm {nd}$ cycle, however, gradually switching upwards in the far end (at approximately $9c$ from the trailing-edge) during the $33\mathrm {rd}$ cycle – see figure 21. The upward deflection angle is seen to be small in this case. The vortex couple $C_{33}$ also undergoes a similar upward switching in the far-field, but at a relatively closer distance from the trailing-edge (at approximately $5c$ from the trailing-edge) and the deflection angle is also higher. The vortex couple $C_{34}$ follows a downward deflected path throughout, which destroys the organization of the prevailing FWS pattern. The next couple $C_{35}$ undergoes an upward switching at the far end (at approximately $3c$ from the trailing-edge). This chain of events is presented here as an example of the transition of an FWS pattern, which is facilitated by the arbitrary movement of the primary couple at the start of the aperiodic burst. This is followed by the switching of the immediate couple in the subsequent cycles.

Figure 21.

Comparison of motion trajectories of three consecutive primary vortex couples ($C_{13}$, $C_{14}$ and $C_{15}$) during far-end switching of the wake at $\kappa h = 1.60$.

Figure 22(a–c) presents the LCSs of the ${U}$, ${A}$ and ${D}$ wakes at $t/T = 30$, $35$ and $42$, respectively. The corresponding temporal as well as spatial evolution of the velocity profiles are presented in figure 23. Figures 23(a), 23(c) and 23(e) present the velocity contours during ${D}$ ($t/T = 30$), ${A}$ ($t/T = 35$) and ${U}$ ($t/T = 42$) wake patterns, respectively. The spatial evolution of the velocity magnitude profiles (solid lines) and streamwise velocity profiles (dotted lines) corresponding to these three wake patterns are presented in figures 23(b), 23(d) and 23(f), respectively, for the strategic locations marked in the velocity contours. At $t/T = 30$, the locus of the maxima of the velocity profiles is seen to move downwards at the far-field, representing the ${D}$ wake. However, at $t/T =35$, the profiles get scattered as their distance from the trailing-edge increases. This characterizes the spatial aperiodicity in the ${A}$ wake. At $t/T = 42$, the locus of the maxima of the velocity profiles is seen to move upward. This shows the reorganization of the wake into a ${U}$ wake after the aperiodic burst. In order to show the temporal behaviour at a fixed spatial location, the velocity magnitude as well as the streamwise velocity profiles are plotted for five consecutive cycles from $t/T =34$ to $t/T = 38$ at $x/c = 7$ and are shown in figure 24. Despite having the same spatial location, both the profiles mark significant differences in their patterns from one cycle to another. This temporal behaviour of the flow field directly reflects the effect of the aperiodic time windows during the dynamical state of intermittency.

Figure 22.

The bFTLE contours at $\kappa h = 1.66$. Here (a) ${D}$ is the wake at $t/T = 30$; (b) the ${A}$ wake at $t/T = 35$; (c) the $\textbf {U}$ wake at $t/T = 42$. The colourmap of bFTLE contour is same as that of figure 9.

Figure 23.

Vorticity contours and spatial evolution of velocity profiles during the regime of intermittency at $\kappa h = 1.66$. In panels (b), (d) and (f) the solid lines refer to velocity magnitude profile and dotted lines refer to streamwise velocity profile. Panels (a–f) give the velocity contours at $t/T = 30, 30, 35, 35, 42, 42$, respectively.

Figure 24.

Comparison of velocity magnitude (a) and streamwise velocity profiles (b) at $x/c = 7$ in four consecutive cycles from $t/T = 34$ to $t/T =38$.

The direction flipping of the immediate couple becomes more frequent at higher $\kappa h$ values as the frequency of aperiodic bursts increases. As a result, the far-wake does not get sufficient time to recover itself from the aperiodic state and eventually the whole wake becomes aperiodic. Similar increase in switching frequency was also reported by Heathcote & Gursul (Reference Heathcote and Gursul2007), for a pure heaving case. However, as mentioned earlier, the presence of FWS wakes or the underlying dynamical state of intermittency which brings out the varied wake patterns in the far-field was not observed in their study. The authors mentioned that this switching period of ${D}$ to ${U}$ to ${D}$ was observed to be two orders of magnitude higher than the heaving period. The present study shows that a full reversal from ${D}$ to ${U}$ (through FWS and ${A}$) can happen within 40 cycles. Figure 25(a) presents the variation of the period-averaged lift coefficients ($\langle C_l\rangle$) over different flapping cycles. It is observed that its sign changes from negative to positive at approximately $t/T = 40$, indicating the switching of the immediate vortex couple from ${D}$ to ${U}$. Note that the dominant leading-edge separation at $Re=10^3$ for the present pitching–heaving case could be a possible reason for advancing the switching phenomenon, as compared with the experimental results of Heathcote & Gursul (Reference Heathcote and Gursul2007). It is also believed that the near-field disturbances accelerate the flipping of the immediate couple during the aperiodic bursts. Furthermore, the most probable states of the $C_l$ values are estimated through its probability distribution function (p.d.f.) and is presented in figure 25(b). Among the three dominant peaks, the peaks on either sides of $C_l = 0$ can, respectively, be attributed to the ${D}$ and ${U}$ modes of the wake in the pre- and post-jet-switching regime, confirming the bistability of the wake (Cadot, Evrard & Pastur Reference Cadot, Evrard and Pastur2015). The peak about zero primarily corresponds to the mean $C_l$ value.

Figure 25.

(a) Variation of period-averaged lift coefficient ($\langle C_l\rangle$); (b) p.d.f. of the instantaneous lift coefficient ($C_l$).

3.4. $\kappa h = 2.50$: sustained chaos

As $\kappa h$ is further increased ($h \geqslant 1.00, \kappa h \geqslant 2.1$), the flow field attains a chaotic state through the frequent aperiodic windows. The $C_d$ time history is observed to be completely irregular at $h=1.25$ ($\kappa h = 2.50$) – see figure 26(a). This chaotic state is represented by a volume in the state space with densely filled trajectories indicating the presence of a strange attractor in the phase space (figure 26b) and a broadband frequency spectrum (figure 26c). In this regime, the near-field interactions become significantly complex giving rise to spontaneous formation of fast-moving vortex couples. The free movement of the vortex couples and their collisions with other isolated vortices or other couples result in various fundamental vortex interactions (Leweke, Le Dizès & Williamson Reference Leweke, Le Dizès and Williamson2016) which eventually turn the flow field completely chaotic and sustain it. Rapid aperiodic jet-switching is seen to act as a precursor to the chaotic flow dynamics. Two typical snapshots of the vorticity contours and LCS corresponding to the chaotic flow topology at $t/T = 25$ and $t/T = 30$ are presented in figure 27. It is evident that there is no correlation between them as the flow field has become completely unpredictable in this regime.

Figure 26.

Time series analyses of $C_d$ time history at $\kappa h = 2.50$. (a) Time history; (b) phase portrait; (c) frequency spectra.

Figure 27.

Chaotic flow topology at $\kappa h = 2.50$. (a) Vorticity contour at $t/T = 12$; (b) bFTLE contours at $t/T = 12$; (c) vorticity contour at $t/T = 25$; (d) bFTLE contours at $t/T = 25$. The colourmap of bFTLE contour is same as that of figure 9.

The dynamical signature of the various transitional far-wake patterns during the jet-switching phenomenon has been conclusively established in this section. The intermittency in the near-field has been manifested to be the key reason behind the immediate couple switching at the trailing-edge for the first time. Finally, it has been substantiated that the aperiodic jet-switching acts as a precursor to sustained chaos in the flow field. The next section focuses on the underlying vortex interaction mechanisms through which these dynamical transitions, especially switching of the immediate couple at the trailing-edge takes place, leading to an eventual complete breakdown of the organization of the wake.