This chapter explores the relationship of social class and the nature of the urban place with its elements of size, density and variety. Social class and status groups shared common values and experience. European towns demonstrated hierarchies of dominance and conflict. Despite the importance of the market, regulations enforced by bureaucracy were essential to manage the externalities generated by the complexity of the town. Towns provided places where citizens learnt the nature of class. The factory and the department store are presented as examples.

The town was a place where change was driven by ethnic and nationalist contest as well as class conflict dominated by labour and capital. Among the multiple directions of social contest, varied degrees of stability were created by the great land empires of Europe.

Towns provided the mass and variety which generated associations, clubs, societies and lodges which mediated between the individual and the State and the contests of class, ethnicity and nationalities. Associations were also a source of instability as they became a source of ethnic, language and national identity. The unstable triangle of empire, class and ethnicity failed, leaving the towns of the twentieth century in the shadow of the old multi-ethnic empires.

Urban nature holds great potential to address the web of challenges that cities are facing and support transitions to a more sustainable future. Cities are working with nature in a diversity of ways, such as by using blue and green infrastructure. Blue infrastructure includes, for example, lakes, ponds, drains, and wetlands. These features can regulate storm-water flows, reduce pressure on the urban drainage system, and create sponge cities that lower flooding risks while reducing heat island effects, enhancing biodiversity, and providing recreational opportunities. Green infrastructure can include, for example, urban forests, green roofs and walls, multi-functional parks, and river embankments. These areas can improve air quality and energy efficiency, reduce heat island effects, and contribute to human health and well-being, amongst other benefits. Furthermore, urban gardens can increase access to food and employment while enhancing physical and mental health and social integration.