Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-74656f9884-kv2lp Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2026-11-05T03:13:14.339Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

35 - Bridging the Gap between Bilingual Phonetic Research and Pronunciation Teaching

from Part VI - Variables and Outcomes of Bilingual Speech

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 November 2024

By
John M. Levis  and
Charlie Nagle
Edited by
Mark Amengual
Mark Amengual
Affiliation:
University of California, Santa Cruz
Get access

Summary

Pronunciation teaching is often based on assumptions that learners are monolingual speakers, with the sound system of their native language determining the segmental and suprasegmental difficulties that mark learners’ foreign accents. However, many, if not a majority of speakers of other languages come to pronunciation with more than one language under their command. These bilingual/multilingual speakers are the norm in a globalized world, but how we teach pronunciation rarely accounts for the knowledge and skills these speakers bring to the learning of pronunciation. This chapter describes how the characteristics of bilingual speakers suggest how pronunciation teaching can be reimagined to take into account the range and flexibility of bilingual speakers in using multiple languages. Specifically, we argue that taking a nativeness viewpoint is inconsistent with taking a bilingual viewpoint and calls for pedagogical techniques that build on the kinds of needs bilingual speakers have in pronouncing additional languages.

Keywords

cross-linguistic influencepronunciation teachingperceptionproductionintelligibilitycomprehensibilityaccentednessprioritiescontrastive analysisSpeech Learning ModelL3 learningsocial factorslearning strategiesassessment

Information

Type
Chapter
Information
The Cambridge Handbook of Bilingual Phonetics and Phonology , pp. 791 - 812
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2024

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Book purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Amengual, M. (2016). Cross-linguistic influence in the bilingual mental lexicon: Evidence of cognate effects in the phonetic production and processing of a vowel contrast. Frontiers in Psychology, 7(6), 1–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baker Smemoe, W. & Haslam, N. (2013). The effect of language learning aptitude, strategy use and learning context on L2 pronunciation learning. Applied Linguistics, 34(4), 435–456.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, A. (1988). Functional load and the teaching of pronunciation. TESOL Quarterly, 22(4), 593–606.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, C. (2000). The interrelation between speech perception and phonological acquisition from infant to adult. In Archibald, J., ed., Second Language Acquisition and Linguistic Theory. Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 4–63.Google Scholar
Burri, M. (2023). Making the case for brain-friendly pronunciation instruction. RELC Journal, 54(3), 864–872.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cabrelli Amaro, J. (2017). Testing the phonological permeability hypothesis: L2 phonological effects on L1 versus L2 systems. International Journal of Bilingualism, 21(6), 698–717.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Celce-Murcia, M. (1983). Teaching pronunciation communicatively. MEXTESOL Journal, 7(1), 10–25.Google Scholar
Celce-Murcia, M., Brinton, D. M., Goodwin, J. M., & Griner, B. (2010). Teaching Pronunciation: A Reference for Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Chan, M. J. (2018). Embodied pronunciation learning: Research and practice. CATESOL Journal, 30(1), 47–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cook, V. (1999). Going beyond the native speaker in language teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 33(2), 185–209.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Couper, G. (2016). Teacher cognition of pronunciation teaching amongst English language teachers in Uruguay. Journal of Second Language Pronunciation, 2, 29–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Darcy, I., Rocca, B., & Hancock, Z. (2021). A window into the classroom: How teachers integrate pronunciation instruction. RELC Journal, 52(1), 110–127.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Derwing, T. M. & Munro, M. J. (2005). Second language accent and pronunciation teaching: A research‐based approach. TESOL Quarterly, 39(3), 379–397.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Derwing, T. M., Munro, M. J., & Wiebe, G. (1998). Evidence in favor of a broad framework for pronunciation instruction. Language Learning, 48(3), 393–410.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dickerson, W. B. (1994). Empowering students with predictive skills. In Morley, J., ed., Pronunciation Pedagogy and Theory: New Views, New Directions. Alexandria, VA: TESOL Press, pp. 17–33.Google Scholar
Dickerson, W. B. (2015). Using orthography to teach pronunciation. In Reed, M. & Levis, J. M., eds., The Handbook of English Pronunciation. Chichester, UK: Wiley Blackwell, pp. 488–504.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ding, S., Liberatore, C., Sonsaat, S., et al. (2019). Golden speaker builder – An interactive tool for pronunciation training. Speech Communication, 115, 51–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flege, J. E. (1995). Second language speech learning: Theory, findings, problems. In Strange, W., ed., Speech Perception and Linguistic Experience: Issues in Cross-Language Research. Baltimore, MD: York Press, pp. 233–277.Google Scholar
Flege, J. E. & Bohn, O.-S. (2021). The revised Speech Learning Model (SLM-r). In Wayland, R., ed., Second Language Speech Learning: Theoretical and Empirical Progress. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 3–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flege, J. E., Munro, M. J., & MacKay, I. R. A. (1995). Factors affecting strength of perceived foreign accent in a second language. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 97, 3125–3134.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flege, J. E., Yeni-Komshian, G. H., & Liu, S. (1999). Age constraints on second-language acquisition. Journal of Memory and Language, 41, 78–104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Foote, J. A., Holtby, A. K., & Derwing, T. M. (2011). Survey of the teaching of pronunciation in adult ESL programs in Canada, 2010. TESL Canada Journal, 29(1), 1–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Foote, J. A. & McDonough, K. (2017). Using shadowing with mobile technology to improve L2 pronunciation. Journal of Second Language Pronunciation, 3(1), 34–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fouz-González, J. & Mompeán, J. A. (2020). Exploring the potential of phonetic symbols and keywords as labels for perceptual training. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 43(2), 297–328.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fouz-González, J. & Mompean, J. A. (2021). Phonetic symbols vs. keywords in perceptual training: The learners’ views. ELT Journal, 75(4), 460–470.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gilbert, J. (2014). Intonation is hard to teach. In Grant, L., ed., Pronunciation Myths: Applying Second Language Research to Classroom Teaching. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, pp. 107–137.Google Scholar
Gilbert, J. B. (2019). An informal account of how I learned about English rhythm. TESOL Journal, 10(3), 1–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goldrick, M., Runnqvist, E., & Costa, A. (2014). Language switching makes pronunciation less nativelike. Psychological Science, 25(4), 1031–1036.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goodwin, J. (2005). The power of context in teaching pronunciation. In Frodesen, J. & Holten, C., eds., The Power of Context in Language Teaching and Learning. Boston, MA: Thomson Heinle, pp. 225–236.Google Scholar
Gordon, J. & Darcy, I. (2016). The development of comprehensible speech in L2 learners: A classroom study on the effects of short-term pronunciation instruction. Journal of Second Language Pronunciation, 2(1), 56–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gordon, J. & Darcy, I. (2019). Teaching segmentals vs. suprasegmentals: Different effects of explicit instruction on comprehensibility. In Levis, J. M., Nagle, C., & Todey, E., eds., Proceedings of the 10th Pronunciation in Second Language Learning and Teaching Conference. Ames: Iowa State University, pp. 116–126.Google Scholar
Gurzynski-Weiss, L., Long, A. Y., & Solon, M. (2017). TBLT and L2 pronunciation: Do the benefits of tasks extend beyond grammar and lexis? Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 39(2), 213–224.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hammarberg, B. (2001). Roles of L1 and L2 in L3 Production and Acquisition. In Cenoz, J., Hufeisen, B., & Jessner, U., eds., Cross-Linguistic Influence in Third Language Acquisition: Psycholinguistic Perspectives. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters, pp. 21–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hardison, D. M. (2004). Generalization of computer assisted prosody training: Quantitative and qualitative findings. Language Learning & Technology, 8(1), 34–52.Google Scholar
Hirata, Y. (2004). Computer assisted pronunciation training for native English speakers learning Japanese pitch and durational contrasts. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 17(3–4), 357–376.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huang, B. & Evanini, K. (2016). Think, sink, and beyond: Phonetic variants and factors contributing to English th pronunciation among Chinese speakers. Journal of Second Language Pronunciation, 2(2), 253–275.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huensch, A. (2019). Pronunciation in foreign language classrooms: Instructors’ training, classroom practices, and beliefs. Language Teaching Research, 23(6), 745–764.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huensch, A. & Nagle, C. (2021). The effect of speaker proficiency on intelligibility, comprehensibility, and accentedness in L2 Spanish: A conceptual replication and extension of Munro and Derwing (1995a). Language Learning, 71(3), 626–668.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Isaacs, T. & Trofimovich, P. (2012). Deconstructing comprehensibility. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 34(3), 475–505.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Isaacs, T. & Trofimovich, P., eds. (2017). Second Language Pronunciation Assessment: Interdisciplinary Perspectives. Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Isaacs, T., Trofimovich, P., & Foote, J. A. (2017). Developing a user-oriented second language comprehensibility scale for English-medium universities. Language Testing, 35(2), 193–216.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Isbell, D. R. (2021). Can the test support student learning? Validating the use of a second language pronunciation diagnostic. Language Assessment Quarterly, 18(4), 331–356.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Isbell, D. & Sakai, M. (2022). Classroom-based pronunciation assessment. In Levis, J. M., Derwing, T. M., & Sonsaat-Hegelheimer, S., eds., Second Language Pronunciation: Bridging the Gap between Research and Teaching. Chichester, UK: Wiley Blackwell, pp. 194–214.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jenkins, J. (2000). The Phonology of English as an International Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Jenkins, J. (2002). A sociolinguistically based, empirically researched pronunciation syllabus for English as an international language. Applied Linguistics, 23(1), 83–103.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, T., ed. (2016). Pronunciation in the Classroom: The Overlooked Essential. Alexandria, VA: TESOL Press.Google Scholar
Kalmar, T. M. ([2000] 2015). Illegal Alphabets and Adult Biliteracy: Latino Migrants Crossing the Linguistic Border, 2nd expanded ed. New York: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kartushina, N. & Martin, C. D. (2019). Third-language learning affects bilinguals’ production in both their native languages: A longitudinal study of dynamic changes in L1, L2 and L3 vowel production. Journal of Phonetics, 77, 100920.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kieseier, T. (2021). Bilingual advantage in early EFL pronunciation accuracy of German 4th-graders. International Journal of Bilingualism, 25(3), 708–726.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kroll, J. F. & Bialystok, E. (2013). Understanding the consequences of bilingualism for language processing and cognition. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 25(5), 497–514.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lado, R. (1957). Linguistics across Cultures: Applied Linguistics for Language Teachers. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
LeVelle, K. & Levis, J. M. (2014). Understanding the impact of social factors on L2 pronunciation: Insights from learners. In Levis, J. M. & Moyer, A., eds., Social Dynamics in Second Language Accent. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton, pp. 97–118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levis, J. M. (2005). Changing contexts and shifting paradigms in pronunciation teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 39(3), 369–377.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levis, J. M. (2015). Learning views of social issues in pronunciation learning. Journal of Academic Language & Learning, 9,A42–A55.Google Scholar
Levis, J. M. (2018). Intelligibility, Oral Communication, and the Teaching of Pronunciation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levis, J. M. (2020). Revisiting the intelligibility and nativeness principles. Journal of Second Language Pronunciation, 6(3), 310–328.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levis, J. M. & Cortes, V. (2008). Minimal pairs in spoken corpora: Implications for pronunciation assessment and teaching. In Chappelle, C. A., Chung, Y. R., & Xu, J., eds., Towards Adaptive CALL: Natural Language Processing for Diagnostic Language Assessment. Ames: Iowa State University, pp. 197–208.Google Scholar
Levis, J. M. & Echelberger, A. (2022). Integrating pronunciation into language instruction. In Levis, J. M., Derwing, T. M., & Sonsaat-Hegelheimer, S., eds., Second Language Pronunciation: Bridging the Gap between Research and Teaching. Chichester, UK: Wiley Blackwell, pp. 19–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levis, J. M. & Grant, L. (2003). Integrating pronunciation into ESL/EFL classrooms. TESOL Journal, 12(2), 13–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levis, J. M. & Moyer, A., eds. (2014). Social Dynamics in Second Language Accent. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levis, J. M. & Muller Levis, G. (2018). Teaching high-value pronunciation features: Contrastive stress for intermediate learners. CATESOL Journal, 30(1), 139–160.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Llama, R., Cardoso, W., & Collins, L. (2010). The influence of language distance and language status on the acquisition of L3 phonology. International Journal of Multilingualism, 7(1), 39–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lybeck, K. (2002). Cultural identification and second language pronunciation of Americans in Norway. Modern Language Journal, 86(2), 174–191.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mack, M. (1989). Consonant and vowel perception and production: Early English-French bilinguals and English monolinguals. Perception & Psychophysics, 46(2), 187–200.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Martin, I. A. (2020). Pronunciation can be acquired outside the classroom: Design and assessment of homework‐based training. Modern Language Journal, 104(2), 457–479.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martin, I. A. & Sippel, L. (2021). Is giving better than receiving? The effects of peer and teacher feedback on L2 pronunciation skills. Journal of Second Language Pronunciation, 7(1), 62–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marx, N. (2002). Never quite a “native speaker”: Accent and identity in the L2 – and the L1. Canadian Modern Language Review, 59(2), 264–281.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCrocklin, S. (2019). ASR-based dictation practice for second language pronunciation improvement. Journal of Second Language Pronunciation, 5(1), 98–118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCrocklin, S. & Link, S. (2016). Accent, identity, and a fear of loss? ESL students’ perspectives. Canadian Modern Language Review, 72, 122–148.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McNerney, M. & Mendelsohn, D. (1992). Suprasegmentals in the pronunciation class: Setting priorities. In Avery, P. & Ehrlich, S., eds., Teaching American English Pronunciation. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 185–196.Google Scholar
Miller, J. (2003). Audible Difference. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mora, J. C. & Levkina, M. (2017). Task-based pronunciation teaching and research: Key issues and future directions. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 39(2), 381–399.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mora-Plaza, I., Mora, J. C., & Gilabert, R. (2018). Learning L2 pronunciation through communicative tasks. In Levis, J. M., ed., Proceedings of the 9th Pronunciation in Second Language Learning and Teaching Conference. Ames: Iowa State University, pp. 174–184.Google Scholar
Morley, J. (1991). The pronunciation component in teaching English to speakers of other languages. TESOL Quarterly, 25(3), 481–520.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moyer, A. (2014). Exceptional outcomes in L2 phonology: The critical factors of learner engagement and self-regulation. Applied Linguistics, 35(4), 418–440.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moyer, A. (2017). Autonomy in second language phonology: Choice vs. limits. Language Teaching, 50(3), 395–411.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Müller, M. (2013). Conceptualizing pronunciation as part of translingual/transcultural competence: New impulses for SLA research and the L2 classroom. Foreign Language Annals, 46(2), 213–229.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Munro, M. J. (2018). How well can we predict second language learners’ pronunciation difficulties? CATESOL Journal, 30(1), 267–281.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Munro, M. J. (2021). On the difficulty of defining “difficult” in second-language vowel acquisition. Frontiers in Communication, 6(53), 639398.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Munro, M. J. & Derwing, T. M. (1995). Foreign accent, comprehensibility, and intelligibility in the speech of second language learners. Language Learning, 45(1), 73–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Munro, M. J. & Derwing, T. M. (2006). The functional load principle in ESL pronunciation instruction: An exploratory study. System, 34(4), 520–531.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Munro, M. J. & Derwing, T. M. (2020). Foreign accent, comprehensibility, and intelligibility, redux. Journal of Second Language Pronunciation, 6(3), 283–309.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Munro, M. J., Derwing, T. M., & Thomson, R. I. (2015). Setting segmental priorities for English learners: Evidence from a longitudinal study. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 53, 39–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nagle, C. L. & Huensch, A. (2020). Expanding the scope of L2 intelligibility research: Intelligibility, comprehensibility, and accentedness in L2 Spanish. Journal of Second Language Pronunciation, 6(3), 329–351.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nagle, C., Sachs, R., & Zárate-Sández, G. (2018). Exploring the intersection between teachers’ beliefs and research findings in pronunciation instruction. Modern Language Journal, 102(3), 512–532.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Offerman, H. M. & Olson, D. J. (2016). Visual feedback and second language segmental production: The generalizability of pronunciation gains. System, 59, 45–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olson, D. J. (2014a). Phonetics and technology in the classroom: A practical approach to using speech analysis software in second-language pronunciation instruction. Hispania, 97(1), 47–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olson, D. J. (2014b). Benefits of visual feedback on segmental production in the L2 classroom. Language Learning & Technology, 18(3), 173–192.Google Scholar
Olson, D. J. & Offerman, H. M. (2020). Maximizing the effect of visual feedback for pronunciation instruction. Journal of Second Language Pronunciation, 7(1), 89–115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perrachione, T. K., Lee, J., Ha, L. Y., & Wong, P. C. (2011). Learning a novel phonological contrast depends on interactions between individual differences and training paradigm design. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 130(1), 461–472.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Piller, I. (2002). Passing for a native speaker: Identity and success in language learning. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 6(2), 179–208.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rehman, I. (2021). Real-Time Formant Extraction for Second Language Vowel Production Training. [Doctoral dissertation, Iowa State University.] Ann Arbor, MI: ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global.Google Scholar
Saito, K. (2013). Reexamining effects of form-focused instruction on L2 pronunciation development. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 35(1), 1–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Saito, K. & Lyster, R. (2012a). Investigating pedagogical potential of recasts for L2 vowel acquisition. TESOL Quarterly, 46(2), 387–398.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Saito, K. & Lyster, R. (2012b). Effects of form-focused instruction and corrective feedback on L2 pronunciation development of /r/ by Japanese learners of English. Language Learning, 62(2), 595–633.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Saito, K. & Plonsky, L. (2019). Effects of second language pronunciation teaching revisited: A proposed measurement framework and meta-analysis. Language Learning, 69(3), 652–708.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Saito, K. & van Poeteren, K. (2017). The perception-production link revisited: The case of Japanese learners’ English /ɹ/ performance. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 28(1), 3–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Saito, K., Suzuki, S., Oyama, T., & Akiyama, Y. (2021). How does longitudinal interaction promote second language speech learning? Roles of learner experience and proficiency levels. Second Language Research, 37(4), 547–571.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sakai, M. (2018). Moving towards a bilingual baseline in second language phonetic research. Journal of Second Language Pronunciation, 4(1), 11–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sakai, M. & Moorman, C. (2018). Can perception training improve the production of second language phonemes? A meta-analytic review of 25 years of perception training research. Applied Psycholinguistics, 39(1), 187–224.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sardegna, V. (2022). Evidence in favor of a strategy-based model for English pronunciation instruction. Language Teaching, 55(3), 363–378.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sewell, A. (2021). Functional load and the teaching-learning relationship in L2 pronunciation. Frontiers in Communication, 6, 1–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smotrova, T. (2017). Making pronunciation visible: Gesture in teaching pronunciation. TESOL Quarterly, 51(1), 59–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomson, R. I. (2012). Improving L2 listeners’ perception of English vowels: A computer-mediated approach. Language Learning, 62(4), 1231–1258.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomson, R. I. (2018). High Variability [Pronunciation] Training (HVPT). Journal of Second Language Pronunciation, 4(2), 208–231.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trofimovich, P. & Isaacs, T. (2012). Disentangling accent from comprehensibility. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 15(4), 905–916.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trofimovich, P., Kennedy, S., & Foote, J. (2015). Variables affecting L2 pronunciation development. In Reed, M. & Levis, J. M., eds., The Handbook of English Pronunciation. Chichester, UK: Wiley Blackwell, pp. 353–373.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wardhaugh, R. (1970). The Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis. TESOL Quarterly, 4(2), 123–130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wrembel, M. (2013). Foreign accent ratings in third language acquisition: The case of L3 French. In Waniek-Klimczak, E. E. & Shockey, L., eds., Teaching and Researching English Accents in Native and Non-native Speakers. Berlin: Springer, pp. 31–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhang, R. & Yuan, Z. M. (2020). Examining the effects of explicit pronunciation instruction on the development of L2 pronunciation. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 42(4), 905–918.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Accessibility standard: Unknown

Why this information is here

This section outlines the accessibility features of this content - including support for screen readers, full keyboard navigation and high-contrast display options. This may not be relevant for you.

Accessibility Information

Accessibility compliance for the HTML of this chapter is currently unknown and may be updated in the future.

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure no-reply@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×