It is evident from the discussion in the previous chapter that additional language learning motivation has attracted considerable attention from researchers, not least in Japan. The early work of Gardner and Lambert is fundamental to research in this field (e.g. Gardner, 1985, 2001; Gardner & Lambert, 1959, 1972). This research was principally located and focused on the very specific situation of bilingual second language learning in Canada. From these beginnings, Gardner's evolving yet influential model of motivation in SLA revolved strongly around the notion of integrativeness, which was defined as a desire to assimilate into the target language community or to 'come closer to the other language community' (Gardner, 2001: 5).

However, recent years have seen a number of reconceptualisations of the phenomenon of language learning motivation. In particular, the spread of languages used as lingua franca across national and cultural boundaries has engendered a rethinking of the notion of integrativeness as a (or the) driving influence on motivation. The use of languages in such ways is clearly fundamentally different from the very specific setting in which the concept was initially conceived. With regard to English, when it is perceived as a tool by a wide variety of different communities, there appears to be no one 'other language community' to which learners might try to draw closer. As Ushioda and Dörnyei (2009: 2–3) ask, 'does it make sense to talk about integrative attitudes when ownership of English does not rest with a specific community of speakers?'

In light of such concerns, and especially considering the literature in the previous chapter indicating that Japanese learners are more motivated by the idea of an English-speaking community independent of nationality (Ryan, 2009a; Yashima, 2002), I believe that the concept of integrativeness offers little to the understanding of classroom language learning motivation in this context. Similarly dissatisfied with the concept of integrativeness, Dörnyei (2005, 2009a) drew on the idea of possible selves elaborated earlier in the field of social psychology by scholars such as Higgins (1987) and Markus and Nurius (1986).