Introduction

Following an examination of cultural and ethnic tourism and the false divide between the two, this section examines how communities balance socioeconomic integration and cultural distinction, how aspects of culture are used and sold or are commodified. This process is not seen as negative or positive but the processes involved are discussed. Cultural commodification has stimulated preservation, community consciousness and an appreciation of local traditions. Identity affirmation and pride are examined as integral aspects of the cultural commodification process.

This section also examines a widely accepted criterion of sustainable tourism: community participation. It unpicks the overused notion of community, to examine the flaws that exist: the heterogeneous nature of communities, how as some members of communities are ruled in, others are necessarily ruled out; the complex and fluid nature of community make-up; as well as how political and psychological factors are as important as geographical, sociological and territorial aspects in considering notions of community.

While it is noted that 'participation' is open to a variety of interpretations, the chapters in this section examine active participation for empowerment. While active participation in tourism development initiatives would seem to empower community members, in many instances this is not necessarily the case. A number of factors are identified that both increase empowerment, for example esteem, pride, confidence and external contacts; and that restrict empowerment, for example a lack of knowledge about tourism, lack of self-belief or a lack of skills.

This section includes four case studies that illustrate many of these issues and more. These focus on craft tourism development in Lapland, place-making and community participation in Kiltimagh, Ireland, township tourism in Soweto, South Africa and Maasai tourism in Kenya and Tanzania.