Smoking and depression

doi:10.1017/CBO9780511544293.016

15 - Smoking and depression

from Part 3 - Biological and behavioural processes

Published online by Cambridge University Press: 17 September 2009

Jon D. Kassel and

Benjamin L. Hankin

Edited by

Andrew Steptoe

Show author details

Jon D. Kassel: Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
Benjamin L. Hankin: Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of South Carolina, Barnwell College, Columbia, SC, USA
Andrew Steptoe: Affiliation:
University College London

Book contents

Get access

Summary

Introduction

Cigarette smoking remains the most preventable cause of illness and death in society today. Upwards of 440 000 smokers die in the USA each year [1, 2], and worldwide over 1 200 000 deaths a year are attributable to smoking-related causes [3]. Despite these staggering statistics, smokers and non-smokers alike often do not appreciate fully the health risks of tobacco use, particularly cigarette smoking. The latest epidemiological studies indicate that death rates for smokers are two to three times higher than for non-smokers at all ages. This means that half of all smokers will eventually die as a result of their smoking. If current smoking trends persist, then about 500 million people currently alive – nearly 9% of the world's population – will die as a result of tobacco use [3].

Moreover, tobacco is arguably the most addictive substance known to humankind. Whereas approximately 32% of people who initiate cigarette smoking become nicotine-dependent, only 23%, 17% and 15% of individuals who experiment with heroin, cocaine and alcohol, respectively, become dependent on these drugs [4]. Interestingly, unlike with harder drugs, the subjective effects of smoking are subtle. Rarely does a smoker describe that smoking provides them with anything approaching the euphoria or high often attributed to other drugs. And yet, as Shiffman [5] observes, ‘the addictive potential of nicotine is all the more impressive for its ability to engender such compulsive use without impressive subjective effects’ (p. 15).

The pathways to becoming a smoker are no doubt complex [6, 7].

Keywords

cigarette smoking consequence model pathoplasticity model predisposition model spectrum model smoking-depression relationship

Information

Type: Chapter
Information: Depression and Physical Illness , pp. 321 - 347
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511544293.016 [Opens in a new window]
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2006

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Book purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, The Health Consequences of Smoking: A Report of the Surgeon General (Atlanta, GA: U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health, 2004).

Mokdad, A. H., Marks, J. S., Stroup, D. F., Gerberding, J. L., Actual causes of death in the United States. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 291 (2004), 1238–45.Google Scholar

World Health Organization, Partnership to Reduce Tobacco Dependence (Copenhagen: World Health Organization, 2000).

Anthony, J., Warner, K., Kessler, R., Comparative epidemiology of dependence on tobacco, alcohol, controlled substances and inhalants: basic findings from the National Comorbidity Survey. Exp. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 2 (1994), 244–68.Google Scholar

Shiffman, S., Comments on nicotine addiction. Psychopharmacology 117 (1995), 14–15.Google Scholar

J. D. Kassel, S. Weinstein, S. A. Skitch, J. Veilleux, R. J. Mermelstein, The development of substance abuse in adolescence: correlates, causes, and consequences. In Development of Psychopathology: A Vulnerability-Stress Perspective, ed. Hankin, B. L., Abela, J. R. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2005), pp. 355–84.

Moolchan, E. T., Ernst, M., Henningfield, J. E., A review of tobacco smoking in adolescents: treatment implications. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 39 (2000), 682–93.Google Scholar

Lasser, K., Boyd, J. W., Woolhandler, S., et al., Smoking and mental illness: a population-based prevalence study. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 284 (2000), 2606–10.Google Scholar

Breslau, N., Kilbey, M. M., Andreski, P., Nicotine dependence, major depression, and anxiety in young adults. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 48 (1991), 1069–74.Google Scholar

Covey, L. S., Glassman, A. H., Stetner, F., Cigarette smoking and major depression. J. Addict. Dis. 17 (1998), 35–46.Google Scholar

Degenhardt, L., Hall, W., The relationship between tobacco use, substance-use disorders and mental health: results from the National Survey of Mental Health and Well-being. Nicotine Tob. Res. 3 (2001), 225–34.Google Scholar

Brown, R. A., Lewinsohn, P. M., Seeley, J. R., Wagner, E. F., Cigarette smoking, major depression, and other psychiatric disorders among adolescents. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 35 (1996), 1602–10.Google Scholar

Rohde, P., Lewinsohn, P. M., Brown, R. A., Gau, J. M., Kahler, C. W., Psychiatric disorders, familial factors and cigarette smoking: I. Associations with smoking initiation. Nicotine Tob. Res. 5 (2003), 85–98.Google Scholar

Upadhyaya, H. P., Deas, D., Brady, K. T., Kruesi, M., Cigarette smoking and psychiatric comorbidity in children and adolescents. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 41 (2002), 1294–305.Google Scholar

Kendler, K. S., Neale, M. C., Sullivan, P., et al., A population-based twin study in women of smoking initiation and nicotine dependence. Psychol. Med. 29 (1999), 299–308.Google Scholar

Kandel, D. B., Johnson, J. G., Bird, H. R., et al., Psychiatric disorders associated with substance use among children and adolescents: findings from the methods for the Epidemiology of Child and Adolescent Mental disorders (MECA) Study. J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 25 (1997), 121–32.Google Scholar

Kellam, S. G., Anthony, J. C., Targeting early antecedents to prevent tobacco smoking: findings from an epidemiologically based randomized field trial. Am. J. Public Health 88 (1998), 1490–94.Google Scholar

Lynskey, M. T., Ferguson, D. M., Childhood conduct problems, attention deficit behaviors, and adolescent alcohol, tobacco, and illicit drug use. J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 23 (1995), 281–302.Google Scholar

McMahon, R. J., Child and adolescent psychopathology as risk factors for subsequent tobacco use. Nicotine Tob. Res. 1 (1999), S45–50.Google Scholar

Miller-Johnson, S., Lochman, J. E., Coie, J. D., Terry, R., Hyman, C., Comorbidity of conduct and depressive problems at sixth grade: substance use outcomes across adolescence. J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 26 (1998), 221–32.Google Scholar

Kassel, J. D., Stroud, L. R., Paronis, C. A., Smoking, stress, and negative affect: correlation, causation, and context across stages of smoking. Psychol. Bull. 129 (2003), 270–304.Google Scholar

American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edn (Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 1994).

Coyne, J. C., Self-reported distress: analog or ersatz depression. Psychol. Bull. 116 (1994), 29–45.Google Scholar

Flett, G. L., Vrendenburg, K., Krames, L., The continuity of depression in clinical and nonclinical samples. Psychol. Bull. 121 (1997), 395–416.Google Scholar

Ruscio, A. M., Ruscio, J., The latent structure of analogue depression: should the Beck Depression Inventory be used to classify groups?Psychol. Assess. 14 (2002), 135–45.Google Scholar

Ruscio, J., Ruscio, A. M., Informing the continuity controversy: a taxometric analysis of depression. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 109 (2000), 473–87.Google Scholar

Hankin, B. L., Fraley, R. C., Lahey, B. B., Waldman, I., Is depression best viewed as a continuum or discrete category? A taxometric analysis of childhood and adolescent depression in a population-based sample. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 114 (2005), 96–110.Google Scholar

Ambrosini, P., Bennett, D., Cleland, C. M., Haslam, N., Taxonicity of adolescent melancholia: a categorical or dimensional construct?J. Psychiatr. Res. 36 (2002), 247–56.Google Scholar

Beach, S. R. H., Amir, N., Is depression taxonic, dimensional, or both?J. Abnorm. Psychol. 112 (2003), 228–36.Google Scholar

Ruscio, J., Ruscio, A. M., Keane, T. M., Using taxometric analysis to distinguish a small latent taxon from a latent dimension with positively skewed indicators: the case of involuntary defeat syndrome. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 113 (2004), 145–54.Google Scholar

U. S. Department of Health and Human Services. The Health Consequences of Smoking: Nicotine Addiction – a Report from the U. S. Surgeon General (Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1988).

J. R. Hughes, S. T. Higgins, D. Hatsukami, Effects of abstinence from tobacco: a critical review. In Research Advances in Alcohol and Drug Problems, ed. Kozlowski, L. T., Annis, H. M., Cappell, H. D., et al. (New York: Plenum Publishing, 1990), pp. 317–98.

Hughes, J. R., Hatsukami, D. K., Pickens, R. W., et al., Effect of nicotine on the tobacco withdrawal syndrome. Psychopharmacology 83 (1984), 82–7.Google Scholar

Cutler, G. H., Barrios, F. X., Effects of deprivation on smokers' mood during the operation of a complex computer simulation. Addict. Behav. 13 (1988), 379–82.Google Scholar

Fleming, S. E., Lombardo, T. W., Effects of cigarette smoking on phobic anxiety. Addict. Behav. 12 (1987), 195–8.Google Scholar

Hughes, J. R., Distinguishing withdrawal relief and direct effects of smoking. Psychopharmacology 104 (1991), 409–10.Google Scholar

Kalman, D., The subjective effects of nicotine: methodological issues, a review of experimental studies, and recommendations for future research. Nicotine Tob. Res. 4 (2002), 25–70.Google Scholar

West, R., Beneficial effects of nicotine: fact or fiction?Addiction 88 (1993), 589–90.Google Scholar

Shiffman, S., Paty, J. A., Kassel, J. D., Gnys, M., Zettler-Segal, M., Smoking behavior and smoking history of tobacco chippers. Exp. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 2 (1994), 126–42.Google Scholar

B. R. Flay, Youth tobacco use: risks, patterns, and control. In Nicotine Addiction: Principles and Management, ed. Slade, J., Orleans, C. T. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993) pp. 365–84.

Cole, D. A., Martin, J. M., Peeke, L. G., Seroczynski, A. D., Hoffman, K., Are cognitive errors of underestimation predictive or reflective of depressive symptoms in children: a longitudinal study. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 107 (1998), 481–96.Google Scholar

Hankin, B. L., Abramson, L. Y., Moffitt, T. E.et al., Development of depression from preadolescence to young adulthood: emerging gender differences in a 10-year longitudinal study. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 107 (1998), 128–40.Google Scholar

Hankin, B. L., Abramson, L. Y., Development of gender differences in depression: an elaborated cognitive vulnerability-transactional stress theory. Psychol. Bull. 127 (2001), 773–96.Google Scholar

Wade, T. J., Cairney, J., Pevalin, D. J., Emergence of gender differences in depression during adolescence: national panel results from three countries. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 41 (2002), 190–98.Google Scholar

Kassel, J. D., Are adolescent smokers addicted to nicotine? The suitability of the nicotine dependence construct as applied to adolescents. J. Child Adolesc. Subst. Abuse. 9 (2000), 27–49.Google Scholar

Brook, J. S., Cohen, P., Brook, D. W., Longitudinal study of co-occurring psychiatric disorders and substance use. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 37 (1998), 322–30.Google Scholar

Escobedo, L. G., Reddy, M., Giovino, G. A., The relationship between depressive symptoms and cigarette smoking in US adolescents. Addiction 93 (1998), 433–40.Google Scholar

Ferdinand, R. F., Bluem, M., Verhulst, F. C., Psychopathology in adolescence predicts substance use in young adulthood. Addiction 96 (2001), 861–70.Google Scholar

Kandel, D. B., Davies, M., Karus, D., Yamaguchi, K., The consequences in young adulthood of adolescent drug involvement: an overview. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 43 (1986), 746–54.Google Scholar

Dierker, L. C., Avenevoli, S., Merikangas, K. R., Flaherty, B. P., Stolar, M., Association between psychiatric disorders and the progression of tobacco use behaviors. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 40 (2001), 1159–67.Google Scholar

Goodman, E., Capitman, J., Depressive symptoms and cigarette smoking among teens. Pediatrics 106 (2000), 748–55.Google Scholar

Wang, M. Q., Fitzhugh, E. C., Green, B. L., et al., Prospective social-psychological factors of adolescent smoking progression. J. Adolesc. Health 24 (1998), 2–9.Google Scholar

White, H. R., Pandina, R. J., Chen, P. H., Developmental trajectories of cigarette use from early adolescence into young adulthood. Drug Alcohol Depend. 65 (2002), 167–78.Google Scholar

Costello, E., Erkanli, A., Federman, E., Angold, A., Development of psychiatric comorbidity with substance abuse in adolescents: effects of timing and sex. J. Clin. Child Psychol. 28 (1999), 298–311.Google Scholar

Killen, J. D., Robinson, T. H., Haydel, K. F., et al., Prospective study of risk factors for the initiation of cigarette smoking. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 65 (1997), 1011–16.Google Scholar

Gritz, E. R., Prokhorov, A. V., Hudmon, K. S., et al., Cigarette smoking in a multiethnic population of youth: methods and baseline findings. Prev. Med. 27 (1998), 365–84.Google Scholar

Fergusson, D. M., Lynskey, M. T., Horwood, J., Comorbidity between depressive disorders and nicotine dependence in a cohort of 16-year-olds. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry (1996), 1043–7.Google Scholar

Kandel, D. B., Davies, M., Adult sequelae of adolescent depressive symptoms. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 43 (1986), 255–62.Google Scholar

Breslau, N., Peterson, E. L., Schultz, L. R., Chilcoat, H. D., Andreski, P., Major depression and stages of smoking: a longitudinal investigation. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 55 (1998), 161–6.Google Scholar

Stein, J. A., Newcomb, M. D., Bentler, P. M., Initiation and maintenance of tobacco smoking: changing personality correlates in adolescence and young adulthood. J. Appl. Soc. Psychol. 26 (1996), 160–87.Google Scholar

Patton, G. C., Carlin, J. B., Coffey, C., et al., Depression, anxiety, and smoking initiation: a prospective study over 3 years. Am. J. Public Health 88 (1998), 1518–22.Google Scholar

Choi, W. S., Patten, C. A., Gillin, J. C., Kaplan, R. M., Pierce, J. P., Cigarette smoking predicts development of depressive symptoms among US adolescents. Ann. Behav. Med. 19 (1997), 42–50.Google Scholar

Windle, M., Windle, R. C., Depressive symptoms and cigarette smoking among middle adolescents: prospective associations and intrapersonal and interpersonal influences. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 69 (2001), 215–26.Google Scholar

Johnson, J. G., Cohen, P., Pine, D. S., et al., Association between cigarette smoking and anxiety disorders during adolescence and early adulthood. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 284 (2000), 2348–51.Google Scholar

Breslau, N., Psychiatric comorbidity of smoking and nicotine dependence. Behav. Genet. 25 (1995), 95–101.Google Scholar

Waal-Manning, H., Hamel, F., Smoking habit and psychometric scores: a community study. N. Z. Med. J. 88 (1978), 188–91.Google Scholar

Anda, R. F., Williamson, D. F., Escobedo, L. G., et al., Depression and the dynamics of smoking. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 264 (1990), 1541–5.Google Scholar

Breslau, N., Kilbey, M. M., Andreski, P., Nicotine dependence and major depression: new evidence from a prospective investigation. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 50 (1993), 31–5.Google Scholar

Breslau, N., Kilbey, M. M., Andreski, P., DSM-III-R nicotine dependence in young adults: prevalence, correlates and associated psychiatric disorders. Addiction 89 (1994), 743–54.Google Scholar

Kendler, K. S., Neale, M. C., MacLean, C. J., et al., Smoking and major depression: a causal analysis. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 50 (1993), 36–43.Google Scholar

McCaffery, J. M., Niaura, R., Swan, G. E., Carmelli, D., A study of depressive symptoms and smoking behavior in adult male twins from the NHLBI twin study. Nicotine Tob. Res. 5 (2003), 77–83.Google Scholar

Cherek, D. R., Effects of acute exposure to increased levels of background industrial noise on cigarette smoking behavior. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 56 (1985), 23–30.Google Scholar

Mangan, G. L., Golding, J. F., The Psychopharmacology of Smoking (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984).

Pomerleau, C. S., Pomerleau, O. F., The effects of a psychological stressor on cigarette smoking and subsequent behavioral and physiological responses. Psychophysiology 24 (1987), 278–85.Google Scholar

Epstein, L. H., Collins, F. L., The measurement of situational influences of smoking. Addict. Behav. 2 (1977), 47–53.Google Scholar

Rose, J. E., Ananda, S., Jarvik, M. E., Cigarette smoking during anxiety-provoking and monotonous tasks. Addict. Behav. 8 (1983), 353–9.Google Scholar

Schachter, S., Silverstein, B., Perlick, D., Psychological and pharmacological explanations of smoking under stress. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 106 (1977), 31–40.Google Scholar

Perkins, K. A., Grobe, J. E., Increased desire to smoke during acute stress. Br. J. Addiction 87 (1992), 1037–40.Google Scholar

Garvey, A. J., Bliss, R. E., Hitchcock, J. L., Heinold, J. W., Rosner, B., Predictors of smoking relapse among self-quitters: a report from the normative aging study. Addict. Behav. 17 (1992), 367–77.Google Scholar

Shiffman, S., Relapse following smoking cessation: A situational analysis. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 50 (1982), 71–86.Google Scholar

Department of Health and Human Services, The Health Benefits of Smoking Cessation: A Report of the Surgeon General, DHHS publication no. CDC 90–8416. (Atlanta, GA: Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health, 1990).

Cohen, S., Lichtenstein, E., Prochaska, J. O., et al., Debunking myths about self-quitting: evidence from 10 prospective studies of persons who attempt to quit smoking by themselves. Am. Psychol. 44 (1989), 1355–65.Google Scholar

Hughes, J. R., Gulliver, S. B., Fenwick, J. W., et al., Smoking cessation among self-quitters. Health Psychol. 11 (1992), 331–4.Google Scholar

Glassman, A. H., Helzer, J. E., Covey, L. S., et al., Smoking, smoking cessation and major depression. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 264 (1990), 1546–9.Google Scholar

Hall, S. M., Munoz, R. F., Reus, V. I., Sees, K. L., Nicotine, negative affect, and depression. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 61 (1993), 761–7.Google Scholar

Covey, L. S., Tobacco cessation among patients with depression. Primary Care 26 (1999), 691–706.Google Scholar

Covey, L. S., Glassman, A. H., Stetner, F., Major depression following smoking cessation. Am. J. Psychiatry 154 (1997), 263–5.Google Scholar

Borrelli, B., Bock, B., King, T., Pinto, B., Marcus, B. H., The impact of depression on smoking cessation in women. Am. J. Prev. Med. 12 (1996), 378–87.Google Scholar

Niaura, R., Britt, D. M., Shadel, W. G., et al., Symptoms of depression and survival experience among three samples of smokers trying to quit. Psychol. Addict. Behav. 15 (2001), 13–17.Google Scholar

Hitsman, B., Borrelli, B., McChargue, D. E., Spring, B., Niaura, R., History of depression and smoking cessation outcome: a meta-analysis. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 71 (2003), 657–63.Google Scholar

McNeill, A. D., Jarvis, M., West, R., Subjective effects of cigarette smoking in adolescents. Psychopharmacologia 92 (1987), 115–17.Google Scholar

Dozois, D. N., Farrow, J. A., Miser, A., Smoking patterns and cessation motivations during adolescence. Int. J. Addict. 30 (1995), 1485–98.Google Scholar

Nichter, M., Nichter, M., Vuckovic, N., Quintero, G., Ritenbaugh, C., Smoking experimentation and initiation among adolescent girls: qualitative and quantitative findings. Tobacco Control 6 (1997), 285–95.Google Scholar

Faraday, M. M., Elliott, B. M., Grunberg, N. E., Adult vs. adolescent rats differ in biobehavioral responses to chronic nicotine administration. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 70 (2001), 475–89.Google Scholar

Elliott, B. M., Faraday, M. M., Phillips, J. M., Grunberg, N. E., Effects of nicotine on elevated plus maze and locomotor activity in male and female adolescent and adult rats. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 77 (2004), 21–8.Google Scholar

Cheeta, S., Irvine, E. E., Tucci, S., Sandhu, J., File, S. E., In adolescence, female rats are more sensitive to the anxiolytic effect of nicotine than are male rats. Neuropsychopharmacology 25 (2001), 601–7.Google Scholar

Coan, R., Personality variables associated with cigarette smoking. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 26 (1973), 86–104.Google Scholar

Ikard, F. F., Green, P. E., Horn, D., A scale to differentiate between types of smoking as related to the management of affect. Int. J. Addict. 4 (1969), 649–59.Google Scholar

McKennell, , Smoking motivation factors. Br. J. Soc. Clin. Psychol. 9 (1970), 8–22.Google Scholar

Russell, M. A. H., Peto, J., Patel, U. A., The classification of smoking by factorial structure of motives. J. R. Stat. Soc. Ser. A 137 (1974), 313–33.Google Scholar

Shiffman, S., Assessing smoking patterns and motives. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 61 (1993), 732–42.Google Scholar

Brandon, T. H., Baker, T. B., The smoking consequences questionnaire: the subjective expected utility of smoking in college students. Psychol. Assess. 3 (1991), 484–91.Google Scholar

Copeland, A. L., Brandon, T. H., Quinn, E. P., The Smoking Consequences Questionnaire – Adult: measurement of smoking outcome expectancies of experienced smokers. Psychol. Assess. 7 (1995), 484–94.Google Scholar

Spring, B., Pingitore, R., McChargue, D. E., Reward value of cigarette smoking for comparably heavy smoking schizophrenic, depressed, and nonpatient smokers. Am. J. Psychiatry 160 (2003), 316–22.Google Scholar

George, T. P., Picciotto, M. R., Verrico, C. D., Roth, R. H., Effects of nicotine pretreatment on dopaminergic and behavioral responses to conditioned fear stress in rats: dissociation of biochemical and behavioral effects. Biol. Psychiatry 49 (2001), 300–306.Google Scholar

George, T. P., Verrico, C. D., Roth, R. H., Effects of repeated nicotine pre-treatment on mesoprefrontal dopaminergic and behavioral responses to acute footshock stress. Brain Res. 801 (1998), 36–49.Google Scholar

Semba, J., Mataki, C., Yamada, S., Nankai, M., Toru, M., Antidepressantlike effects of chronic nicotine on learned helplessness paradigm in rats. Biol. Psychiatry 43 (1998), 389–91.Google Scholar

Tizabi, Y., Overstreet, D. H., Rezvani, A. H., et al., Antidepressant effects of nicotine in an animal model of depression. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 142 (1999), 193–9.Google Scholar

Djuric, D. J., Dunn, E., Overstreet, D. H., Dragomir, A., Steiner, M., Antidepressant effect of ingested nicotine in female rats of Flinders resistant and sensitive lines. Physiol. Behav. 67 (1999), 533–7.Google Scholar

Balfour, D. J. K., Ridley, D. L., The effects of nicotine on neural pathways implicated in depression: a factor in nicotine addiction?Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 66 (2000), 79–85.Google Scholar

Balfour, D. J. K., The influence of stress on psychopharmacological responses to nicotine. Br. J. Addiction 86 (1991), 489–93.Google Scholar

Brandon, T. H., Tiffany, S. T., Obremski, K. M., Baker, T. B., Postcessation cigarette use: the process of relapse. Addict. Behav. 15 (1990), 105–14.Google Scholar

Shiffman, S., Hickcox, M., Paty, J. A., et al., The abstinence violation effect following smoking lapses and temptations. Cogn. Ther. Res. 21 (1997), 497–523.Google Scholar

Marlatt, G. A., Gordon, J. R.Relapse Prevention: Maintenance Strategies in the Treatment of Addictive Behaviors (New York: Guilford Press, 1985).

Carey, M. P., Kalra, D. L., Carey, K. B., Halperin, S., Richards, C. S., Stress and unaided smoking cessation: a prospective investigation. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 61 (1993), 831–8.Google Scholar

Cohen, S., Lichtenstein, E., Perceived stress, quitting smoking, and smoking relapse. Health Psychol. 9 (1990), 466–78.Google Scholar

Hughes, J. R., Tobacco withdrawal in self-quitters. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 60 (1992), 689–97.Google Scholar

West, R., Hajek, P., What happens to anxiety levels on giving up smoking?Am. J. Psychiatry 154 (1997), 1589–92.Google Scholar

Gilbert, D. G., McClernon, F. J., Rabinovich, N. E., et al., Mood disturbance fails to resolve across 31 days of cigarette abstinence in women. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 70 (2002), 142–52.Google Scholar

Parrott, A. C., Does cigarette smoking cause stress?Am. Psychol. 54 (1999), 817–20.Google Scholar

Fergusson, D. M., Goodwin, R. D., Horwood, L. J., Major depression and cigarette smoking: results of a 21-year longitudinal study. Psychol. Med. 33 (2003), 1357–67.Google Scholar

Breslau, N., Novak, S. P., Kessler, R. C., Psychiatric disorders and stages of smoking. Biol. Psychiatry 55 (2004), 69–76.Google Scholar

Dierker, L. C., Avenevoli, S., Stolar, M., Merikangas, K. R., Smoking and depression: an examination of mechanisms of comorbidity. Am. J. Psychiatry 159 (2002), 947–53.Google Scholar

T. A. Widiger, R. Verheul, W. van den Brink, Personality and psychopathology. In Handbook of Personality: Theory and Research, ed. Pervin, L. A., John, O. P. (New York: Guilford Press, 1999), pp. 347–66.

Orlando, M., Ellickson, P. L., Jinnett, K., The temporal relationship between emotional distress and cigarette smoking during adolescence and young adulthood. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 69 (2001), 959–70.Google Scholar

Patton, G., Carlin, J., Coffey, C., et al., Depression, anxiety, and smoking initiation: a prospective study over 3 years. Am. J. Public Health 88 (1998), 1518–22.Google Scholar

Scarinci, I. C., Thomas, J., Brantley, P. J., Jones, G. N., Examination of the temporal relationship between smoking and major depressive disorder among low-income women in public primary care clinics. Am. J. Health Promotion 16 (2002), 323–30.Google Scholar

Whalen, C. K., Jamner, L. D., Henkder, B., Delfino, R. J., Smoking and moods in adolescents with depressive and aggressive dispositions: evidence from surveys and electronic diaries. Health Psychol. 20 (2001), 99–111.Google Scholar

Wu, L. T., Anthony, J. C., Tobacco smoking and depressed mood in late childhood and early adolescence. Am. J. Public Health 89 (1999), 1837–40.Google Scholar

Patton, G. C., Carlin, J. B., Coffey, C., et al., The course of early smoking: a population-based cohort study over three years. Addiction 93 (1998), 1251–60.Google Scholar

Fleming, C. B., Kim, H., Harachi, T. W., Catalano, R. F., Family processes for children in early elementary school as predictors of smoking initiation. J. Adolesc. Health 30 (2002), 184–9.Google Scholar

Abela, J. R. Z., Hankin, B. L., Haigh, E. A. P., et al., Interpersonal vulnerability to depressive episodes in high risk children: the role of insecure attachment and reassurance seeking. J. Clin. Child Adolesc. Psychol. 34 (2005), 182–92.Google Scholar

Kendler, K. S., Neale, M. C., MacLean, C. J., et al., Smoking and major depression: a causal analysis. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 50 (1993), 36–43.Google Scholar

Madden, P. A. F., Heath, A. C., Pedersen, N. L., et al., The genetics of smoking persistence in men and women: a multicultural study. Behav. Genet. 29 (1999), 423–31.Google Scholar

Quattrocki, E., Baird, A., Hurgelun-Todd, D., Biological aspects of the link between smoking and depression. Harv. Rev. Psychiatry 8 (2000), 99–110.Google Scholar

Krueger, R. F., Personality traits in late adolescence predict mental disorders in early adulthood: a prospective-epidemiological study. J. Pers. 67 (1999), 39–65.Google Scholar

Gilbert, D. G.. Smoking: Individual Differences, Psychopathology, and Emotion (Washington, DC: Taylor & Francis, 1995).

Hu, S., Brody, C. L., Fisher, C., et al., Interaction between the serotonin transporter gene and neuroticism in cigarette smoking behavior. Mol. Psychiatry 5 (2000), 181–8.Google Scholar

Caspi, A., Sugden, K., Moffitt, T. E., et al., Influence of life stress on depression: moderation by a polymorphism in the 5-HTT gene. Science 301 (2003), 386–9.Google Scholar

Breslau, N., Novak, S. P., Kessler, R. C., Daily smoking and the subsequent onset of psychiatric disorders. Psychol. Med. 34 (2004), 323–33.Google Scholar

Ahluwalia, J. S., Harris, K. J., Catley, D., Okuyemi, K. S., Mayo, M. S., Sustained-release bupropion for smoking cessation in African Americans: a randomized controlled trial. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 288 (2002), 468–74.Google Scholar

Lerman, C., Niaura, R., Collins, B. N., et al., Effect of bupropion on depression symptoms in a smoking cessation clinical trial. Psychol. Addict. Behav. 18 (2004), 362–6.Google Scholar

Hurt, R. D., Sachs, D. P., Glover, E. D., et al., A comparison of sustained-release bupropion and placebo for smoking cessation. N. Engl. J. Med. 337 (1997), 1195–202.Google Scholar

Jorenby, D. E., Leischow, S. J., Nides, M. A., et al., A controlled trial of sustained-release bupropion, a nicotine patch, or both for smoking cessation. N. Engl. J. Med. 340 (1999), 685–91.Google Scholar

Hays, J. T., Hurt, R. D., Rigotti, N. A., et al., Sustained-release bupropion for pharmacologic relapse prevention after smoking cessation: a randomized, controlled trial. Ann. Intern. Med. 135 (2001), 423–33.Google Scholar

Hayford, K. E., Patten, C. A., Rummans, T. A., et al., Efficacy of bupropion for smoking cessation in smokers with a former history of major depression or alcoholism. Br. J. Psychiatry 174 (1999), 173–8.Google Scholar

Sanderson, L., Patten, C. A., Niaura, R. S., et al., Efficacy of bupropion for relapse prevention in smokers with and without a past history of major depression. J. Gen. Intern. Med. 19 (2004), 828–34.Google Scholar

Brown, R. A., Kahler, C. W., Niaura, R., et al., Cognitive-behavioral treatment for depression in smoking cessation. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 69 (2001), 471–80.Google Scholar

E Burgess, S., Brown, R. A., Kahler, C. W., et al., Patterns of change in depressive symptoms during smoking cessation: who's at risk for relapse? J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 70 (2002), 356–61.Google Scholar

Hall, S. M., Munoz, R. F., Reus, V. I., Cognitive-behavioral intervention increases abstinence rates for depressive-history smokers. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 62 (1994), 141–6.Google Scholar

Hall, S. M., Munoz, R. F., Reus, V. I., et al., Mood management and nicotine gum in smoking treatment: a therapeutic contact and placebo-controlled study. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 64 (1996), 1003–1009.Google Scholar

Murphy, J. M., Horton, N. J., Monson, R. R., et al., Cigarette smoking in relation to depression: historical trends from the Stirling County Study. Am. J. Psychiatry 160 (2003), 1663–9.Google Scholar

Galambos, N. L., Leadbeater, B. J., Barker, E. T., Gender differences in and risk factors for depression in adolescence: a 4-year longitudinal study. Int. J. Behav. Dev. 28 (2004), 16–25.Google Scholar

B. L. Hankin, J. R. Z. Abela, Depression from childhood through adolescence and adulthood: a developmental vulnerability-stress perspective. In Development of Psychopathology: A Vulnerability–Stress Perspective, ed. Hankin, B. L., Abela, J. R. Z. (Thousand Oaks, CA, Sage, 2005), pp. 245–88.

Lewinsohn, P. M., Joiner, T. E., Rohde, P., Evaluation of cognitive diathesis-stress models in predicting major depressive disorder in adolescents. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 110 (2001), 203–15.Google Scholar

Dawes, M. A., Antelman, S. M., Vanyukov, M. M., et al., Developmental sources of variation in liability to adolescent substance use disorders. Drug Alcohol Dep. 61 (2000), 3–14.Google Scholar

Wills, T. A., Sandy, J. M., Yaeger, A., Temperament and adolescent substance use: an epigenetic approach to risk and protection. J. Pers. 68 (2000), 1127–51.Google Scholar

Cicchetti, D., Rogosch, F. A., Equifinality and multifinality in developmental psychopathology. Dev. Psychopathol. 8 (1996), 597–600.Google Scholar

Accessibility standard: Unknown

Why this information is here

This section outlines the accessibility features of this content - including support for screen readers, full keyboard navigation and high-contrast display options. This may not be relevant for you.

Accessibility Information

Accessibility compliance for the PDF of this chapter is currently unknown and may be updated in the future.