1. A. Scotland, The London Cage (London: Evans Brothers, 1957), pp. 65–66.

2. H. Jones, Violence against Prisoners of War in the First World War: Britain, France, and Germany, 1914–1920 (Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011), pp. 179–81.

3. S. Neitzel, Tapping Hitler’s Generals: Transcripts of Secret Conversations, 1942–45 (Barnsley: Frontline, 2007); S. Neitzel and H. Welzer, Soldaten: On Fighting, Killing, and Dying: The Secret World War II Tapes of German POWs (London: Simon & Schuster, 2013). American intelligence eventually adopted similar methods and some of the resulting transcripts have been analysed: F. Römer, Comrades: The Wehrmacht from Within (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019).

4. F. Bell, Britische Feindaufklärung im Zweiten Weltkrieg: Stellenwert und Wirkung der ‘Human Intelligence’ in der britischen Kriegführung 1939–1945 (Paderborn: Ferdinand Schöningh, 2016); H. Welzer, S. Neitzel and C. Gudehus (eds.), ‘Der Führer war wieder viel zu human, viel zu gefühlvoll’: Der Zweite Weltkrieg aus der Sicht deutscher und italienischer Soldaten, Die Zeit des Nationalsozialismus (Frankfurt am Main: Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, 2011); A. Photiadou, ‘“Extremely Valuable Work”: British Intelligence and the Interrogation of Refugees in London, 1941–45’, Intelligence and National Security 36 (2020): 17–33; A. Photiadou, ‘The Detention of Non-Enemy Civilians Escaping to Britain during the Second World War’, The Historical Journal 65 (2022): 482–504; S. Tobia, ‘Victims of War: Refugees’ First Contacts with the British in the Second World War’, in H. Footitt and M. Kelly (eds.), Languages and the Military: Alliances, Occupation and Peace Building (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012), pp. 131–47; H. Fry, The London Cage: The Secret History of Britain’s World War II Interrogation Centre (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2017).

5. S. Newbery, ‘The Study of Interrogation: A Focus on Torture, but What about the Intelligence?’, in C. R. Moran and C. J. Murphy (eds.), Intelligence Studies in Britain and the US: Historiography Since 1945 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2013), pp. 222–35.

6. D. Cesarani, ‘How Post-War Britain Reflected on the Nazi Persecution and Mass Murder of Europe’s Jews: A Reassessment of Early Responses’, Jewish Culture and History 12 (2010): 95–130.

7. H. Jones, ‘A Process of Modernization? Prisoner of War Interrogation and Human Intelligence Gathering in the First World War’, in C. Andrew and S. Tobia (eds.), Interrogation in War and Conflict: A Comparative and Interdisciplinary Analysis (London: Routledge, 2014), pp. 18–35.

8. See also chapter 4 in J. Beach, Haig’s Intelligence: GHQ and the German Army, 1916–1918 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013).

9. J. Beach and J. Bruce, ‘British Signals Intelligence in the Trenches, 1915–1918: Part 1, Listening Sets’, Journal of Intelligence History 19 (2019): 1–23.

10. G. F. Steven, ‘Wireless in the War’, Berwickshire News (20 April 1920), p. 4, as cited in Beach and Bruce, ‘British Signals Intelligence in the Trenches’.

11. F. Tuohy, The Secret Corps: A Tale of ‘Intelligence’ on All Fronts (London: Forgotten Books, 2018 [1920]).

12. Chief Police Commissioner to Chief Inspector, 21 August 1922, MEPO 3/2545, The National Archives, Kew (TNA).

13. Minute 3 to Deputy Commissioner, 15 April 1932, MEPO 3/2545, TNA.

14. Note on Army Intelligence 1939–1945, undated, War Office (WO) 208/4294, TNA.

15. A. J. Barker, Prisoners of War (New York: Universe Books, 1975), p. 64.

16. For this argument see also Bell, Britische Feindaufklärung im Zweiten Weltkrieg.

17. W. Webster, Mixing It: Diversity in World War Two Britain (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018); W. Webster, ‘Enemies, Allies and Transnational Histories: Germans, Irish, and Italians in Second World War Britain’, Twentieth Century British History 25 (2014): 63–86.

18. For some of the psychological research conducted in interrogation camps and published shortly after the war see: M. I. Gurfein and M. Janowitz, ‘Trends in Wehrmacht Morale’, Public Opinion Quarterly 10 (1946): 78–84; E. A. Shils and M. Janowitz, ‘Cohesion and Disintegration in the Wehrmacht in World War II’, Public Opinion Quarterly 12 (1948): 280–315; D. M. Levy, ‘Anti-Nazis: Criteria of Differentiation’, Psychiatry 11 (1948): 125–67.

19. C. Andrew, The Defence of the Realm: The Authorised History of MI5 (London: Allen Lane, 2010), pp. 241–62; J. C. Masterman (Sir), The Double-Cross System: The Classic Account of World War Two Spy-Masters (New York: Vintage Books, 2013 [1972]).

20. For the departmental history of this camp, written shortly after the war and later edited into a book, see: R. W. G. Stephens and O. Hoare (eds.), Camp 020: MI5 and the Nazi Spies – The Official History of MI5’s Wartime Interrogation Centre (Richmond: Public Record Office, 2000).

21. B. Moore, Prisoners of War, Europe: 1939–1955 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2022); B. Moore and K. Fedorowich (eds.), Prisoners of War and Their Captors in World War II (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996); M. B. Sullivan, Thresholds of Peace: Four Hundred Thousand German Prisoners and the People of Britain, 1944–1948 (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1979); N. Wylie, Barbed Wire Diplomacy: Britain, Germany, and the Politics of Prisoners of War 1939–1945 (Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2010).

22. On the topic of complicity and the Holocaust more specifically, see: M. Fulbrook, Bystander Society: Conformity and Complicity in Nazi Germany and the Holocaust (New York and London: Oxford University Press, 2023); M. Fleming, Auschwitz, the Allies and Censorship of the Holocaust (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014); T. S. Hamerow, Why We Watched: Europe, America, and the Holocaust (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 2008); M. Gilbert, Auschwitz and the Allies (London: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1981); T. Kushner, ‘The Impact of the Holocaust on British Society and Culture’, Contemporary British History 5 (1991): 349–75; M. Rawlinson, ‘This Other War: British Culture and the Holocaust’, Cambridge Quarterly 25 (1996): 1–25.

23. D. Bloxham, Genocide on Trial: War Crimes Trials and the Formation of Holocaust History and Memory (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001); D. Bloxham, ‘“The Trial That Never Was”: Why There Was No Second International Trial of Major War Criminals at Nuremberg’, History 87 (January 2002): 41–60; A. J. Kochavi, Prelude to Nuremberg: Allied War Crimes Policy and the Question of Punishment (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1998); R. Overy, Interrogations: The Nazi Elite in Allied Hands, 1945 (New York: Penguin Books, 2002); R. Overy, ‘Instructive for the Future: The Interrogation of Major War Criminals in Germany, 1945’, in C. Andrew and S. Tobia (eds.), Interrogation in War and Conflict: A Comparative and Interdisciplinary Analysis (London: Routledge, 2014), pp. 93–109; T. Taylor, The Anatomy of the Nuremberg Trials: A Personal Memoir (New York: Skyhorse Publishing, 2013); R. Wolfe, ‘Flaws in the Nuremberg Legacy: An Impediment to International War Crimes Tribunals’ Prosecution of Crimes Against Humanity’, Holocaust and Genocide Studies 12 (1998): 434–53.

24. D. Bloxham, ‘British War Crimes Trial Policy in Germany, 1945–1957: Implementation and Collapse’, Journal of British Studies 42 (2003): 91–118; I. Bryan and M. Salter, ‘War Crimes Prosecutors and Intelligence Agencies: The Case for Assessing Their Collaboration’, Intelligence and National Security 16 (September 2001): 93–120; W. L. Cheah and M. Vormbaum, ‘British War Crimes Trials in Europe and Asia, 1945–1949: A Comparative Study’, Leiden Journal of International Law 31 (2018): 669–92; U. Schmidt, ‘“The Scars of Ravensbrück”: Medical Experiments and British War Crimes Policy, 1945–1950’, German History 23 (2005): 20–49; P. J. Weindling, ‘From International to Zonal Trials: The Origins of the Nuremberg Medical Trial’, Holocaust and Genocide Studies 14 (2000): 367–89.

25. For key examples see: F. H. Hinsley et al. (eds.), British Intelligence in the Second World War, 5 vols. (London: HMSO/Cambridge University Press, 1979–91); K. Jeffery, The Secret History of MI6, 1909–1949 (London: Bloomsbury, 2010); M. S. Goodman, The Official History of the Joint Intelligence Committee (New York: Routledge, 2016); R. W. Jones, Most Secret War: British Scientific Intelligence 1939–1945 (London: Coronet Books/Hodder & Stoughton, 1978); A. Williams, The Untold Story of Photographic Intelligence and the Search for Hitler’s V Weapons (London: Preface, 2013); K. Fedorowich, ‘Axis Prisoners of War as Sources for British Military Intelligence, 1939–42’, Intelligence and National Security 14 (1999): 156–78; Bell, Britische Feindaufklärung im Zweiten Weltkrieg; F. Bell, ‘“One of our Most Valuable Sources of Intelligence”: British Intelligence and the Prisoner of War System in 1944’, Intelligence and National Security 31 (2015): 1–23.

1. See the various witness statements in KV 2/1701, TNA. The KV series contains the records of the Security Service and its predecessors.

2. Their story was first reported in a book by the Earl Jowitt who at the time of their capture was Solicitor General; see W. Jowitt, Some Were Spies (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1954).

3. Statement by Werner Heinrich Walti, 6 March 1941, KV 2/1701, TNA.

4. Note on points arising from the interrogations of Walti, de Deeker and Erikson, 7 October 1940, KV 2/18, TNA.

5. For the failures of German military intelligence, see D. Kahn, Hitler’s Spies: German Military Intelligence in World War II (Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 2000).

6. ‘Dutchmen landing near Dymchurch’, 4 September 1940, KV 2/107, TNA.

7. ‘Extract from SIS report on German Espionage Centres in Norway’, 1 April 1941, KV 2/21, TNA.

8. ‘Preliminary Report on the Work of Camp 020’, Colonel Sampson, July 1945, KV 4/8, TNA. For another example where a confession was not obtained, see KV 2/3288, TNA.

9. J. Fox, ‘Careless Talk: Tensions within British Domestic Propaganda during the Second World War’, Journal of British Studies, 51 (2012), 936–66.

10. These include around forty people who were not associated with or suspected of German espionage. They were instead members of the British Union of Fascists or enemy aliens who had to be vetted in the autumn of 1940.

11. ‘History of the London Reception Centre 1940–45’, pp. 2–3, KV 4/7, TNA.

12. Flight Lieutenant W. V. Emanuel (A12(a)) to Wing Commander Plant (AI1(a)), 17 May 1940, KV 4/375, TNA.

13. Memo by E. N. Cooper, 20 May 1940, KV 4/375, TNA.

14. See A. Black and R. Brunt, ‘Information Management in MI5 Before the Age of the Computer’, Intelligence and National Security 16 (2001): 158–65; see also ‘History of the Security Service’, p. 371, KV4/3, TNA.

15. ‘HS(S)E: Collection of Intelligence from Arrivals to the UK – Notes of Meeting Held at Kinnaird House on Tuesday, 7th November, at 12 noon’, Home Office (HO) 213/1978, TNA.

16. ‘Preliminary Report on the Work of Camp 020’, Colonel Sampson, July 1945, p. 1, KV 4/8, TNA.

17. Photiadou, ‘The Detention of Non-Enemy Civilians’.

18. The most comprehensive biographical information on Stephens is in Stephens and Hoare, Camp 020, Introduction.

19. ‘Unsolved Mystery’, The Mirror (Western Australia), 8 October 1955. https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/76000460# (accessed May 2026).

20. D. G. White to DDS, 15 August 1940, KV 4/81, TNA.

21. White to Swinton, 20 August 1940, KV 4/81, TNA.

22. For Stokes’s background and wartime activities see R. Crowcroft, ‘“What is Happening in Europe?” Richard Stokes, Fascism, and the Anti-War Movement in the British Labour Party During the Second World War and After’, History 93 (2008): 514–30.

23. Archibald Ramsay to Attorney General, 9 September 1940, KV 4/81, TNA.

24. ‘Interrogation of Donovan by Mr Knight at Latchmere House’, 25 August 1940, KV 2/1221, TNA.

25. Harker to B2, 8 November 1940, KV 4/81, TNA.

26. Harker to Jennifer Williams (Home Office), 12 March 1941, KV 4/81, TNA.

27. See ‘Preliminary Report on the Work of Camp 020’, Colonel Sampson, July 1945, KV 4/8, TNA.

28. Liquidation Report, 5 February 1942, KV 2/107, TNA.

29. Ibid.

30. B24b to B13, 26 November 1940, KV 2/1452, TNA.

31. Stephens to White, 25 June 1941, KV 2/13, TNA.

32. Note for file by Milmo, 12 December 1943, KV 2/13, TNA.

33. There was only one exceptional case where MI5 sought life imprisonment for a detainee instead of the death penalty, and this was in order to please the Free French. In the case of Jean-Charles Pelletier, a Free French agent who double-crossed to the Germans, the French wanted to pursue a capital offence but MI5 did not want Pelletier prosecuted at all; they compromised on a lesser crime for which life imprisonment was a likely sentence.

34. ‘Camp 020: Liquidation Report on the Case of Florent Sylvestre Steiner’, June 1945, KV 2/1315, TNA.

35. Minute by Stamp, 2 October 1943, KV 2/1936, TNA.

36. Stamp to DB, 18 October 1943, KV 2/1936, TNA.

37. Milmo to Beaumont, 3 September 1942, KV 2/1707, TNA.

38. ‘Camp 020 Report dated 4th June 1942’, KV 2/1147, TNA.

39. Minute by Milmo, 27 June 1942, KV 2/1147, TNA.

40. ‘Camp 020: Report dated 19th July 1943’, KV 2/1160, TNA.

41. Draft letter to Maxwell from Petrie, 10 January 1944, KV 2/1160, TNA.

42. See ‘Preliminary Report on the Work of Camp 020’, Colonel Sampson, July 1945, KV 4/8, TNA, p. 30.

43. ‘Extract from the Early Life of Lagall’, 5 December 1942, KV 2/1455, TNA.

44. Ibid.

45. Milmo to Bonnefous, 6 September 1944, KV 2/1144, TNA.

46. Ibid.

47. See Draft letter to Maxwell from Petrie, 15 December 1943, KV 2/1160, TNA.

48. See S. E. Hilton, Hitler’s Secret War in South America, 1939–1945: German Military Espionage and Allied Counter‐Espionage in Brazil (Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1999).

49. ‘Camp 020: Report dated 14th September 1943’, KV 2/2439, TNA.

50. Letter by J. Salamon addressed to Herbert Morrison, 28 August 1943, KV 2/2439, TNA.

51. Maxwell to Petrie, 6 January 1944, KV 2/2439, TNA.

52. Peebles to Haylor, 6 October 1942, KV 2/1931, TNA.

53. Milmo to Smith, 10 December 1942, KV 2/1931, TNA.

54. Minute by Milmo, 4 August 1942, KV 2/1150, TNA.

55. Milmo to ADBI, 10 August 1942, KV 2/1150, TNA.

56. Stephens to Renton, 4 March 1941, KV 4/81, TNA.

57. C. B. Mills to ADB1, 25 October 1941, KV 2/1146, TNA.

58. For more on ISOS and cooperation between SIS and MI5 see Jeffery, Secret History of MI6, 487–91.

59. ‘Norway: German Intelligence Activities’, 25 July 1941, KV 2/3282, TNA.

60. ‘Report on the Interrogation of Helmik Knutsen Wallem, Georg Lunde, Ingard Westerlid Nilsen’, 28 July 1941, KV 2/3282, TNA.

61. ‘Interrogation of NILSEN by Colonel Stephens. Captain Evans, Lts McKinnall and Pank present’, 25 August 1941, KV 2/3282, TNA.

62. Undated note by Milmo, KV 2/3282, TNA.

63. Ibid.

64. Translation of petition by H. Lassudry (translated by Detective Sergeant William Allchin), undated, KV 2/1452, TNA.

65. B8(L) Report by Stephens, 7 September 1940, KV 2/107, TNA.

66. Hinchley-Cooke to Milmo, 17 June 1943, KV 2/1702, TNA.

67. Memorandum by the Swiss Legation, 5 November 1941, KV 2/1702, TNA.

68. ‘Doctor Dearden’s Report on his Interview with Erichsen at Holloway on 22.12.40’, KV 2/19, TNA.

69. Verbatim report of the interrogation of Vera Erichsen by Major Stephens, 1 October 1940, KV 2/14, TNA.

70. ‘Supplementary Interrogation of Vera Starizky/Erichsen, by Captain McAffee: Time: 10.45–12.00; date: 3.10.40’, KV 2/14, TNA.

71. Report by Inspector, REX v Karl Theo Drueke, Baroness Vera Von WEDEL and Werner Heinrich Walti, 18 March 1941, KV 2/1701, TNA.

72. See in particular ‘Camp 020 Report on Mirko ROT by Major Sampson’, 14 April 1943, KV 2/1713, TNA; and Haggar’s file in KV 2/1311, TNA.

73. N. West (ed.), The Guy Liddell Diaries, Volume I: 1939–1942 (London: Routledge, 2005), diary entry for 7 February 1942.

74. ‘Interim Report on the Case of Joaquin BATICON Martinez’, 20 June 1943, KV 2/2111, TNA.

75. ‘Camp 020 Report dated 23rd January 1943’, KV 2/2111, TNA.

76. Ibid.

77. This was also the value of refugee interrogations in the Royal Patriotic School: Photiadou, ‘Extremely Valuable Work’. For extending this point to Camp 020, see also J. Curry, The Security Service 1908–1945 (London: Public Record Office, 1999 [1946]), pp. 51, 206.

78. Ibid., p. 180. See also how different MI5 and SIS sources helped to piece together German espionage activities in the Iberian Peninsula in late 1941: N. West, Hitler’s Nest of Vipers: The Rise of the Abwehr (Barnsley: Frontline Books, 2022), pp. 168–79.

79. DO to South Africa HC, 15 October 1942, KV 2/341, TNA.

80. ‘Camp 020 Report dated 22nd March 1943’, KV 2/342, TNA.

81. E. D. R. Harrison, ‘On Secret Service for the Duce: Umberto Campini in Portuguese East Africa, 1941–1943’, The English Historical Review 122 (2007): 1318–49.

82. See ‘Preliminary Report on the Work of Camp 020’, Colonel Sampson, July 1945, KV 4/8, TNA.

83. ‘Supplementary Report on the Case of Nickolay [sic] Steen Marinus Hansen’, December 1943, KV 2/1936, TNA.

84. ‘Camp 020 Report dated 21st November 1943’, KV 2/1936, TNA.

85. ‘Interrogation of Jonsson by Colonel Stephens on 29.4.42; Time: 16.50–19.30 Hours’, KV 2/1147, TNA.

86. Verbatim report of the interrogation of Vera Erichsen by Major Stephens, 1 October 1940, KV 2/14, TNA.

87. A. A. W. Petrie (Banstead Military Hospital) to Methven, 18 December 1943, KV 2/1159, TNA.

88. ‘Camp 020 Report dated 14th November, 1943’, KV 2/1159, TNA.

89. Milmo to Stephens, 19 June 1944, KV 2/1159, TNA.

90. Loxley to Milmo, 2 February 1944, KV 2/1159, TNA.

91. See ‘Preliminary Report on the Work of Camp 020’, Colonel Sampson, July 1945, KV 4/8, TNA.

92. Verbatim report of the interrogation of Vera Erichsen by Major Stephens, 1 October 1940, KV 2/14, TNA. Drueke was at that point was still known as De Deeker, his alias.

93. ‘Dialogue between VERA ERICHSEN AND DE DEEKER’, 1 October 1940, KV 2/14, TNA.

94. ‘Camp 020 Report dated 20.5.43’, KV 2/295, TNA.

95. ‘Interrogation of “Summer” at Latchmere House’, 7 September 1940, KV 2/60, TNA.

96. See ‘Preliminary Report on the Work of Camp 020’, Colonel Sampson, July 1945, KV 4/8, TNA.

97. ‘Summary of Interrogation of Moreira at Camp 020’, 14 April 1943, KV 2/2703, TNA.

98. Stephens and Hoare, Camp 020, p. 6.

99. Statement by E. Alford (Lancashire Fusiliers), 24 February 1944, KV 2/53, TNA.

100. ‘Doctor Dearden’s Report on his Interview with Erichsen at Holloway on 22.12.40’, KV 2/19, TNA.

101. C. J. Murphy, ‘Dramatising Intelligence History on the BBC: The Camp 020 Affair’, Intelligence and National Security 34 (2019): 688–702.

102. For such an example, see Stephens to Milmo and Robertson, 8 August 1942, KV 2/3414, TNA.

103. See ‘Preliminary Report on the Work of Camp 020’, Colonel Sampson, July 1945, KV 4/8, TNA.

104. Note by Lt Col Hinchley Cooke, 30 January 1942, KV 2/15, TNA.

105. See P. Day, The Bedbug: Klop Ustinov, Britain’s Most Ingenious Spy (London: Biteback, 2015), chapter 10.

106. Milmo to Ryde, 23 January 1942, KV 2/15, TNA.

107. Ibid.

108. Report on Vera Erichsen, unsigned and undated but most likely prepared by U.35 in February 1942, KV 2/15, TNA.

109. ‘Source U.35: Re Vera ERIKSON’, 11 March 1942, KV 2/15, TNA.

110. ‘Extract from a report by SNOW on information received from BORRESEN, dated 19.7.43’, KV 2/15, TNA.

111. D. Tremain, The Beautiful Spy: The Life and Crimes of Vera Eriksen (Cheltenham: The History Press, 2019).

112. Masterman to Robertson, 13 August 1942, KV 2/1152, TNA.

113. ‘Report on the Case of Pierre Morel’, 19 October 1942, KV 2/1152, TNA.

114. ‘Camp 020 Report’, undated, KV 2/1454, TNA.

115. Memorandum on MOE and GLAD by CH Harmer, 13 May 1941, KV 2/1068, TNA.

116. ‘MUTT and JEFF: SUMMARY OF FURTHER INTERROGATIONS’, 20 April 1941, KV 2/1067, TNA.

117. Minutes of Group Conferences of Officers engaged on Security Work in District No. 3 (North East), 20 October 1941, KV 2/1068, TNA.

118. Note by C. H. Harmer, 9 August 1941, KV 2/1067, TNA.

119. C. H. Harmer to Marshall, 28 November 1943, KV 2/1067, TNA.

120. M. Ryder to Major Luke, 13 July 1945, KV 2/1067, TNA.

121. ‘Helge John Neal MOE’, 26 September 1945, KV 2/1067, TNA.

122. See ‘Preliminary Report on the Work of Camp 020’, Colonel Sampson, July 1945, KV 4/8, TNA.

123. Ibid.

124. Brooke-Booth to Chenhalls, 7 February 1946, KV 2/295, TNA.

125. See ‘Preliminary Report on the Work of Camp 020’, Colonel Sampson, July 1945, KV 4/8, TNA.

126. Note by Milmo, 29 May 1942, KV 2/1147, TNA.

127. See N. West, Churchill’s Spy Files: MI5’s Top-Secret Wartime Reports (Cheltenham: The History Press, 2018), Appendix 1.

128. Stephens and Hoare, Camp 020, p. 7.

129. See for example the story of Josef Jakobs, one of the few executed: G. K. Jakobs, The Spy in the Tower: The Untold Story of Joseph Jakobs, the Last Person to be Executed in the Tower of London (Cheltenham: The History Press, 2019).

1. The reports from Caroli’s arrest in September 1940 can be found in KV 2/60, TNA.

2. WM (40) 123, 15 May 1940, Cabinet Office (CAB) 65/7/18, TNA.

3. The literature on pertinent topics is rich. Some key examples on Western Europe, from which most Camp 020 detainees came, include: P. Morgan, Hitler’s Collaborators: Choosing Between Bad and Worse in Nazi-Occupied Western Europe (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018); T. C. Imlay and M. Horn, The Politics of Industrial Collaboration During the Second World War: Ford France, Vichy and Nazi Germany (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014); R. Gildea, Marianne in Chains: Daily Life in the Heart of France During the German Occupation (New York: Picador, 2004); I. Deák, J. T. Gross and T. Judt (eds.), The Politics of Retribution in Europe: World War II and its Aftermath (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000); P. Burrin, France Under the Germans: Collaboration and Compromise (New York: New Press, 1996); S. Hoffmann, ‘Collaborationism in France during World War II’, The Journal of Modern History 40 (1968): 375–95.

4. ‘Interrogation of Otto Joost at Latchmere House’, 29 October 1940, KV 2/23, TNA.

5. See letter from Meier to his mother, 8 December 1940, KV 2/1699, TNA.

6. Liquidation Report, 5 February 1942, KV 2/107, TNA.

7. ‘Liquidation Report on the Case of Artur Viana dos Santos’, November 1943, KV 2/1159, TNA.

8. ‘Examiner’s Report: VAN DEN KIEBOOM Charles Albert’, 5 September 1940, KV 2/11, TNA.

9. ‘Camp 020 Report on the Case of Cornelius EVERTSEN and the “Josephine” expedition’, January 1945, KV 2/546, TNA.

10. ‘Personal Particulars’ for Josef Martinez, KV 2/546, TNA.

11. See note by B1B on Jezequel, 19 January 1945, KV 2/546, TNA; and Stephens to White, 25 May 1941, KV 2/13, TNA.

12. ‘Personal Particulars’ for Cornelius EVERTSEN, KV 2/546, TNA.

13. ‘Camp 020 Report on the Case of Cornelius EVERTSEN and the “Josephine” expedition’, January 1945, KV 2/546, TNA.

14. ‘Extract from SIS Report on German Espionage Centres in Norway’, 1 April 1941, KV 2/21, TNA.

15. ‘Summary of EXAMINATION of Sigwald [sic] LUND by Major Stephens’, 28 October 1940, KV 2/20, TNA. In some places this is referred to as the ‘Scandinavian’s Sailors’ Home’ and in others as the ‘Seamen’s Mission Home’.

16. Report on Oscar Liehr by Major Sampson, December 1943, KV 2/2113, TNA.

17. ‘Camp 020 Report dated 3rd December 1943’, KV 2/2113, TNA.

18. ‘Interim Report on the Case of Nickolay Steen Marinius HANSEN’, November 1943, KV 2/1936, TNA.

19. Report on Vera Erichsen, unsigned and undated but most likely written by Klop Ustinov in February 1942, KV 2/15, TNA.

20. Liquidation Report, 5 February 1942, KV 2/107, TNA.

21. Translation of statement by Helmik Wallem, 24 August 1941, KV 2/3282, TNA.

22. Ibid.

23. ‘Camp 020 Report dated 23rd January 1943’, KV 2/2111, TNA.

24. ‘Interim Report on the Case of Joaquin BATICON Martinez’, 20 June 1943, KV 2/2111, TNA.

25. A. F. Plunt to Robin Cecil (Foreign Office), 29 October 1942, KV 2/2703, TNA.

26. ‘Camp 020 Report dated 14th November, 1943’, KV 2/1159, TNA.

27. Translation of letter written by Viana dos Santos, 8 November 1943, KV 2/1159, TNA.

28. ‘Camp 020 Report dated 14th November, 1943’, KV 2/1159, TNA.

29. ‘Camp 020 Report dated 1st February, 1942’, KV 2/1977, TNA.

30. Milmo to Lee, 1 May 1942, KV 2/1977, TNA.

31. Statement by J. Casabayo, 30 January 1942, KV 2/1977, TNA.

32. ‘Report on the Case of Homer Serafimides’, 19 March 1943, KV 2/342, TNA.

33. B1B to B1B, 19 November 1941, KV 2/742, TNA.

34. Philby to Hart, 15 April 1942, KV 2/742, TNA.

35. ‘Camp 020 Report dated 11th June, 1942’, KV 2/743, TNA.

36. ‘Interim Report on the Case of Hans von Meiss-Teuffen at Camp 020’, 27 June 1942, KV 2/743, TNA.

37. D. C. Orr to Milmo, 5 February 1943, KV 2/744, TNA.

38. Special Branch Report on Meiss Teuffen, 27 February 1943, KV 2/745, TNA.

39. See Hans von Meiss-Teuffen, Winds of Adventure (London: Museum Press Limited, 1953), chapter XIX.

40. Minute by Ian Roy, 14 August 1945, KV 2/746, TNA.

41. ‘Single Handed Sailing Feat’, The Times, 7 April 1946, KV 2/746, TNA.

42. ‘Camp 020 Report dated 24th July 1943’, KV 2/2460, TNA.

43. ‘Report on the Case of Claude Poisson’, November 1943, KV 2/949, TNA.

44. Ibid.

45. See Minute 112 dated 15 March 1950 in KV 2/2736, TNA.

46. Unsigned SIS note, 21 July 1943, KV 2/295, TNA.

47. Report by J. Mair, 15 June 1943, KV 2/295, TNA; ‘Summary of Interrogation of Mme. HUYSMANS in Holloway Prison’, 3 June 1943, KV 2/295, TNA.

48. Milmo to Brooke-Booth, 4 June 1945, KV 2/295, TNA.

49. ‘Interrogation of “Summer” at Latchmere House’, 7 September 1940, KV 2/60, TNA.

50. Note by Dick White, 14 January 1941, KV 2/60, TNA.

51. ‘Camp 020 Report on the Case of Cornelius EVERTSEN and the “Josephine” expedition’, January 1945, KV 2/546, TNA.

52. H. L. A. Hart to Major Coles, 16 August 1943, KV 2/2633, TNA.

53. Note by Milmo, 26 August 1943, KV 2/2633, TNA.

54. ‘Camp 020 Report dated 17th October 1943’, KV 2/2634, TNA.

55. ‘Camp 020 Report dated 23 July 1943’, KV 2/1164, TNA.

56. ‘Interim Report: The Case of Eugene van Ackere at Camp 020’, 21 June 1942, KV 2/1707, TNA.

57. Major Wethered to Milmo, 9 August 1942, KV 2/1164, TNA.

58. Note to Milmo (unknown sender but a representative of the Norwegian Authorities), 17 August 1943, KV 2/1164, TNA.

59. Milmo to Newsam, 1 December 1942, KV 2/1156, TNA.

60. ‘Statement of Charles Olivier Boyd’, 4 December 1942, KV 2/1156, TNA.

61. Note by Masterman, 30 December 1942, KV 2/1156, TNA.

62. Note by Reed, 16 December 1942, KV 2/1156, TNA.

63. Memorandum by Milmo, 5 December 1942, KV 2/1156, TNA.

64. Statement by Boyd in Camp 020, 11 January 1943, KV 2/1156, TNA.

65. Note by Masterman, 30 December 1942, KV 2/1156, TNA.

66. ‘Camp 020: Report dated 9th March 1943’, KV 2/1156, TNA.

67. Deputy Governor (for Governor) of HM Prison, Dartmoor to Milmo, 11 May 1943, KV 2/1156, TNA.

68. Extract from letter from Deputy Governor Dartmoor Prison, 18 February 1944, KV 2/1157, TNA.

69. British Military Attache, Stockholm to War Office, 19 September 1941, KV 2/1929, TNA.

70. Stephens to Dick White, 25 November 1941, KV 2/1929, TNA.

71. ‘RVPS report on EIGIL DAG ROBR – Alias EIGIL ROBR HALVORSEN’, 26 October 1941, KV 2/1929, TNA.

72. ‘BL Report dated 10th March 1942’, KV 2/1929, TNA.

73. L. L. Langer, Versions of Survival: The Holocaust and the Human Spirit (New York: State University of New York Press, 1982).

74. Extract from USFET CI re-interrogation report No. 5 on Walter Sensburg, dated 25 March 1946, KV 2/1163, TNA.

75. ‘Extract from: – GSI(b) Force HQ Palestine, Transjordan & Syria. 1st to 31st October, 1941’, KV 2/1163, TNA.

76. See also Gibbs to Cowgill, 29 April 1942, KV 2/1163, TNA.

77. ‘Camp 020 Report dated 18th August 1943’, KV 2/2846, TNA.

78. Report by Milmo, 15 May 1943, KV 2/2846, TNA.

79. ‘Camp 020: Report dated 14th April 1943’, KV 2/1713, TNA.

80. Milmo to Lee, 1 March 1943, KV 2/1712, TNA.

81. ‘Summary of Interrogation of Rot at Camp 020 by Major Sampson, 12 March 1943’, KV 2/1713, TNA.

82. Note on Harlequin’s views on Mirko Rot, 14 March 1943, KV 2/1712, TNA.

83. ‘Camp 020 Report on Mirko ROT by Major Sampson’, 14 April 1943, KV 2/1713, TNA.

84. Note by D. L. Haldane Porter, 5 May 1943, KV 2/1713, TNA.

85. ‘Gibraltar Security Police report on WEXLER, Emmanuell [sic], dated 19th February, 1941’, KV 2/3275, TNA.

86. Minute by Milmo, 8 September 1944, KV 2/3276, TNA.

87. C. B. Mills for T. A. Robertson to Pilcher, 11 September 1941, KV 2/1146, TNA.

88. Extract from ‘Report on Ejsymont’, 29 August 1941, KV 2/1146, TNA.

89. C. B. Mills to ADB1, 25 October 1941, KV 2/1146, TNA.

90. C. B. Mills for T. A. Robertson to Pilcher, 11 September 1941, KV 2/1146, TNA.

91. T. A. Robertson to Derbyshire (E2A), 3 December 1941, KV 2/1146, TNA.

92. N. West (ed.), The Guy Liddell Diaries, Volume II: 1942–1945 (London: Routledge, 2009), diary entry for 19 January 1943.

93. Letter by Sukiennik to the Home Secretary, 28 October 1942, KV 2/1146, TNA.

94. Stephens to ADB1, 10 July 1942, KV 2/1146, TNA.

95. ‘Camp 020 Report dated 17th October 1943’, KV 2/2634, TNA.

96. Duff Cooper to Lord Brabazon, 12 November 1942, KV 2/744, TNA.

97. Stephens and Hoare, Camp 020, p. 107.

98. Statement by J. C. Erasmus, 18 October 1942, KV 2/1931, TNA.

99. Ibid.

100. Milmo to Lee, 30 January 1943, KV 2/1931, TNA.

1. J. Leasor and K. Burt, The One That Got Away (London: James Leasor Publishing, 2015). F. Wentzel, Single or Return? The Story of a German P.O.W. in British Camps and the Escape of Lieutenant Franz von Werra (London: William Kimber, 1954).

2. For a discussion on this, see Neitzel, Tapping Hitler’s Generals, pp. 25–26.

3. According to an intelligence officer: Sullivan, Thresholds of Peace, p. 52.

4. An important exception is academic work by Falko Bell that is much more comprehensive in how it approaches CSDIC, but which is currently not available in English: Bell, Britische Feindaufklärung im Zweiten Weltkrieg.

5. See SRA288, SRA289, SRA890 in WO 208/4118, TNA.

6. Jeffery, Secret History of MI6, pp. 202–03.

7. C. Baxter, ‘The Secret Intelligence Service, Passport Control and Jewish Refugees from the Third Reich, 1938–1939’, English Historical Review 139 (2024): 455–84.

8. West (ed.), The Guy Liddell Diaries, Volume 1.

9. Bell, ‘One of Our Most Valuable Sources of Intelligence’.

10. ‘Combined Services Interrogation Bureau – Army Section’, AG.1.a, 28 May 1940, WO 208/5628, TNA; DMO&I to DSD, 30 August 1939, WO 208/3458, TNA; see also ‘Co-Ordination Arrangements for the Interrogation of P/W’, undated but possibly June/July 1939, WO 208/3458, TNA.

11. See Fedorowich, ‘Axis Prisoners of War’.

12. War Diaries MI9, 27 February 1940, WO 165/39, TNA.

13. This was a comment made in 1940 about conditions in 1939: Kendrick to Rawlinson, 15 January 1940, WO 208/3458, TNA.

14. ‘Wednesday, October the 4th’ (unsigned report), WO 208/4141, TNA.

15. SRA8, 24 December 1939, WO 208/4117, TNA. SR is an abbreviation of Special Reports, and the next initial indicates whether the prisoner was of the Air (A), Army (M) or Navy (N). In cases where the prisoners were from different services, the initial was X.

16. DMI War Diary, WO 208/5568, TNA; Minute by Perceval to MI1a, 2 September 1939, WO 208/3458, TNA.

17. Perceval (MI1) to Kendrick (CSDIC), 20 October 1939, WO 208/3457, TNA.

18. Herbert J. O. Barton (RCA Company Director) to Kendrick, 14 February 1940, WO 208/3457, TNA.

19. ‘Report Foxhound’ and ‘Faulknor’, 19 September 1939, WO 94/105, TNA.

20. A. Mitellas, A Concise History of Trent Country Park, version 3 (London: Friends of Trent Country Park, revised June 2015), available at https://friendsoftrentcountrypark.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/History_of_Trent_Country_Park_version_3___Revised_June_2015.pdf (accessed July 2025).

21. ‘Joint Proposal by MI1 and MI9 Regarding Re-Organisation of Duties in Connection with Prisoners of War and Internees’ to DMI, 20 March 1940 in ‘The Story of MI19’, Appendix A, WO 208/4970, TNA.

22. ‘Conduct of Work, MI9’, 20 March 1940 in ‘The Story of MI19’, Appendix A, WO 208/4970, TNA.

23. M. R. D. Foot, J. M. Langley and G. Templer, MI9: Escape and Evasion 1939–1945 (London: Bodley Head, 1979), p. 34.

24. ‘The Story of MI19’, p. 3, WO 208/4970, TNA.

25. ‘Minutes of Meeting held in the War Office, 21 February 1940: Intelligence Combined Services and [Prisoner of War Information Bureau]’, WO 208/3458, TNA.

26. Scotland, The London Cage, p. 67.

27. Ibid., p. 68.

28. See relevant correspondence in WO 208/3524. For medical matters, discipline and so on, CSDIC was part of London District, but was never to be inspected as other district establishments.

29. See monthly entries in the War Diaries of MI19, WO 165/41, TNA.

30. ‘CSDIC and PWIS – General Policy’, unsigned and undated (possibly by Rawlinson in mid-1943), WO 208/3458, TNA.

31. War Diaries MI19, July 1944, WO 165/41, TNA.

32. War Diaries MI19, September 1944, WO 165/41, TNA.

33. ‘The Army Interrogation Section (Operational)’, WO 208/4970, TNA.

34. IRM78, 25 June 1940, WO 208/4195, TNA.

35. Ibid.

36. Subject Interrogation Report (SIR) 324, 11 June 1944, WO 208/3590, TNA.

37. SIR506, 3 July 1944, WO 208/3592, TNA.

38. SIR571, 14 July 1944, WO 208/3593, TNA.

39. SIR546, 11 July 1944, WO 208/3593, TNA.

40. SIR1165, 2 October 1944, WO 208/3605, TNA.

41. SIR615, 21 July 1944, WO 208/3594, TNA.

42. See examples in SIR432, 24 June 1944, WO 208/3591; SIR628, 25 July 1944; WO 208/3594; SIR973, 25 August 1944, WO 208/3601, TNA.

43. This includes Austrians. Even if they were excluded, the percentage would be 13 per cent. And even if no other foreigner was in CSDIC in 1944 and 1945, barring those in SIRs, the share in the camp as a whole would still be higher than in the Wehrmacht.

44. SIR764, 14 August 1944, WO 208/3596, TNA.

45. SIR977, 22 September 1944, WO 208/3601, TNA.

46. SIR1027, 4 October 1944, WO 208/3602, TNA.

47. SIR396, 17 June 1944, WO 208/3591, TNA.

48. SIR507, 8 July 1944, WO 208/3592, TNA.

49. SIR1374, 25 January 1945, WO 208/3610, TNA.

50. SIR1682, 27 May 1945, WO 208/3617, TNA.

51. SIR1707, 18 July 1945, WO 208/3619, TNA.

52. SIR539, 10 July 1944, WO 208/3593, TNA.

53. SIR292, 3 June 1944, WO 208/3590, TNA.

54. SIR426, 22 June 1944, WO 208/3591, TNA.

55. SIR793, 17 August 1944, WO 208/3597, TNA.

56. SIR732, 12 August 1944, WO 208/3596, TNA.

57. R.-D. Müller and J. W. Ancker, Hitler’s Wehrmacht, 1935–1945 (Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky, 2016), p. 30.

58. SIR1356, 26 December 1944, WO 208/3609, TNA.

59. SIR1580, 29 March 1945, WO 208/3615, TNA.

60. SIR1519, 9 March 1945, WO 208/3614, TNA.

61. SIR411, 23 June 1944, WO 208/3591, TNA.

62. SIR1382, 12 January 1945, WO 208/3610, TNA.

63. SIR872, 8 August 1944, WO 208/3598, TNA.

64. SIR811, 19 August 1944, WO 208/3597, TNA.

65. SIR542, 12 July 1944, WO 208/3593, TNA.

66. ‘Intelligence from Interrogation’, S. D. Felkin, 31 December 1945, Air Ministry (AIR) 40/1177, TNA.

67. Memorandum for C-in-C, Mediterranean, POW Centre, Cairo, 15 July 1940, WO 208/3453, TNA.

68. SRA405, August 1940, WO 208/4118, TNA.

69. SRM208, 25 June 1943, WO 208/4136, TNA.

70. ‘The Story of MI19’, Appendix E, WO 208/4970, TNA.

71. ‘The German Prisoners of War Interrogation Section in N.I.D. During the 1939–45 War’, May 1947, p. 5, the Admiralty (ADM) 223/475, TNA.

72. This is from correspondence between CSDIC’s Colonel Gordona and Lieutenant Colonel Barker for a book the latter was writing: Barker, Prisoners of War, 67.

73. Minute by Rawlinson to PW1, 5 June 1941, WO 208/3443, TNA.

74. ‘Suggested Transfer of Special Camp for Anti-Nazi PS/W from No.1 Camp to No.7 P/W Camp’, VCIGS to QMC (through AG), April 1944, WO 208/3527, TNA.

75. ‘Training of Selected German POW for Psychological Warfare and Civil Affairs Purposes’ by the Psychological Warfare Division to SHAEF, May 1944, WO 219/1841; also in WO 219/2299, TNA.

76. ‘SP Control and P/W Welfare Section’, Appendix I, WO 208/4970, TNA.

77. ‘The German Prisoners of War Interrogation Section in NID during the 1939–45 War’, by C. Mitchell, May 1947, pp. 4–5, ADM 223/475, TNA.

78. ‘The History of CSDIC(UK)’, WO 208/4970, TNA. This document mentions that forty-nine individuals were used as stool pigeons, although I have identified more. This figure might refer to the prisoner identification numbers that were put aside for decoys. For example, identification number ‘N1878’ was used by at least seven individuals acting as stool pigeons in 1944 alone.

79. ‘CSDIC(UK): Survey covering period 3rd September 1939 to 31st December 1940’, WO 208/4970, TNA. See also ‘Intelligence from Interrogation’, S. D. Felkin, 31 December 1945, AIR 40/1177, TNA.

80. MI9 War Diary, 13 February 1941, WO 165/39; Robert Haining (VCIGS) to Major General Davidson (DMI), 16 February 1941, WO 208/3455, TNA provides Haining’s response to the survey.

81. From A. R. Boyle (Air Commodore) to Davidson (DMI), 19 February 1941, WO 208/3455, TNA.

82. Minute 4, From Stawell (DDMI(O)) for DMI to VCIGS, 17 January 1941, WO 208/3514, TNA. His reference to the Political Intelligence Department probably refers to the clandestine Political Warfare Executive, with the Political Intelligence Department of the Foreign Office having been its cover name: D. Garnett, The Secret History of PWE: The Political Warfare Executive, 1939–1945 (London: St Ermin’s Press, 2002), p. 81.

83. Rear Admiral G. H. Godfrey (DNI) to Davidson (DMI), 11 February 1941, WO 208/3455, TNA.

84. Minute 4, From Stawell (DDMI(O)) for DMI to VCIGS, 17 January 1941, WO 208/3514, TNA.

85. War Diaries MI9, July 1941, WO 165/39, TNA

86. War Diaries MI19, August 1943, WO 165/41, TNA.

87. C. H. Brooks to Valentine Williams, 30 June 1941, WO 208/3442, TNA.

88. War Diary, AMD11, entry for 4 August 1942, WO 165/129, TNA.

89. War Diary, AMD11, entry for 21 August 1942, WO 165/129, TNA.

90. War Diaries MI19, January 1943, WO 165/41, TNA.

91. ‘Accommodation for CSDIC UK: History’, WO 208/3456, TNA.

92. Boyle to Davidson, 19 December 1940, WO 208/3514, TNA.

93. Godfrey to Davidson, 7 January 1941, WO 208/3514, TNA.

94. ‘Accommodation for the CSDIC UK: Memorandum by Joint Intelligence Sub-Committee’, 7 May 1941, WO 208/3456, TNA.

95. ‘The History of C.S.D.I.C. (U.K)’, WO 208/4970, TNA.

96. See Neitzel, Tapping Hitler’s Generals.

97. SRM160, 4 February 1943, WO 208/4136, TNA.

98. SRM175, 14 February 1943, WO 208/4136, TNA.

99. Report on the German Senior Officer P/W at no. 11 Camp for the Month of June 1943, CSDIC(UK), 15 July 1943, WO 208/3433, TNA.

100. Minute from Rawlinson to Crockatt, 23 July 1943, WO 208/3438, TNA.

101. Minute from Winston Churchill to Gepp (DPW), 11 June 1943, WO 208/3438, TNA.

102. Note from Crockatt ‘Notes on the Extraction of Information of Ps/W’, 24 June 1943, WO 208/3438, TNA.

103. From Desmond Merton to V. F. W. Cavendish-Bentinck (Foreign Office (FO)), 6 March 1944, WO 208/3438, TNA.

104. War Diaries MI19, May 1944, WO 165/41, TNA.

105. See also Neitzel, Tapping Hitler’s Generals.

106. H. Hinsley, The Intelligence Revolution: A Historical Perspective (Colorado Springs, CO: US Air Force Academy, 1988), pp. 9–10; F. H. Hinsley, ‘British Intelligence in the Second World War: An Overview’, Cryptologia 14 (January 1990): 1–10.

107. See for example ‘W/1931/203/A/1: Prisoners of War No. 10 Camp – Great Britain’, undated, WO 208/5628, TNA.

108. ‘The Story of MI19’, Appendix F, WO 208/4970, TNA.

109. P. Leighton-Langer, The King’s Own Loyal Enemy Aliens: German and Austrian Refugees in Britain’s Armed Forces, 1939–45 (London/Portland, OR: Vallentine Mitchell, 2006), p. 260.

110. ‘Home Office Memorandum Ref. I/Gen.23/2’, 19 February 1941, HO 213/1742, TNA.

111. SIR1647, 29 March 1945, WO 208/3617, TNA.

112. See for example ‘The German Prisoners of War Interrogation Section in NID during the 1939–45 War’, C. Mitchell, May 1947, ADM 223/475, TNA, pp. 10–11.

113. Ibid.

114. Ibid. Similar sentiments were echoed by the Air Ministry: ‘Intelligence from Interrogation’, S. D. Felkin, 31 December 1945, AIR 40/1177, TNA.

115. ‘The German Prisoners of War Interrogation Section in NID during the 1939–45 War’, C. Mitchell, May 1947, ADM 223/475, TNA.

116. John Kirkman (HQ, Home Forces) to Crockatt (MI9) 9 November 1940, WO 208/3513, TNA; Minutes ‘London District Cage – Status and Functions’, October 1941, WO 208/5615, TNA.

117. ‘The German Prisoners of War Interrogation Section in NID during the 1939–45 War’, C. Mitchell, May 1947, ADM 223/475, TNA.

118. ‘History of London and Washington Branches of Military Intelligence Research Section, 1943–1945’, British Army Staff, Washington DC, 1 November 1945, WO 208/3237, TNA.

119. War Diaries MI19, April 1943, WO 165/41, TNA.

120. War Diaries MI19, March 1943, WO 165/41, TNA.

121. Director of Naval Intelligence to Assistant Chief of Staff (Intelligence), 28 March 1945, CAB 176/5, TNA.

122. See War Office to AFHQ Algiers, 17 April 1943, WO 208/3461, TNA. This point was raised in discussions for a new CSDIC on the Continent but it can be inferred, both from this and other discussions, that the UK organisation was strictly British, with some US cooperation.

123. Minute by Godfrey (DNI), 16 December 1939, ADM 1/26868, TNA.

124. Material is in TNA, FO 660/178; HS 9/455/5; FO 371/41908–9; and FO 954/9A, TNA.

125. Extract from letter from Capt. Stampe (MI9 Interrogation Officer, Scottish Command) to Major Scotland (PWIS(H)), 14 July 1941, WO 208/3515, TNA.

126. Ted Kelly (HQ Eastern Command) to Captain D. Morley (GHQ I(x) Home Forces), 13 December 1941, WO 208/3515, TNA.

127. ‘The Story of MI19’, Appendix E, WO 208/4970, TNA.

128. ‘Reasons for the Increases and Decreases in the Proposed Amended WE for CSDIC(UK)’, undated, WO 208/3541, TNA. ‘Apportionment of Suggested Revised Personnel W.E. (Intelligence Personnel)’, WO 208/3543, TNA.

129. ‘The History of CSDIC(UK)’, WO 208/4970, TNA.

130. ‘Bill Barazetti’, Times, 9 October 2000, p. 21, The Times Digital Archive.

131. See Josef Lampersberger’s file in KV 2/2690, TNA.

132. D. G. White (MI5) to Rawlinson, 17 March 1941, KV 2/3767, TNA.

133. ‘Intelligence from Interrogation’, S. D. Felkin, 31 December 1945, AIR 40/1177, TNA.

134. War Establishments Investigation Committee (W), ‘Combined Services Detailed Interrogation Centre and Inter-Service Distribution Centres’, 12 November 1941, WO 208/3542, TNA.

135. War Diaries MI9, 30 January 1940, WO 165/39, TNA.

136. For the history of MI9 see Foot, Langley and Templer, MI9: Escape and Evasion.

137. ‘Memorandum on MI9 War Establishment’ by Davidson (DMI) for JIC(41) 425(0), 31 October 1941, CAB 121/304, TNA.

138. Similarly, in July 1943 the Air component of CSDIC was upgraded to the level of Assistant Directorate of the Air Ministry; ‘Intelligence from Interrogation’, S. D. Felkin, 31 December 1945, AIR 40/1177, TNA.

139. War Diaries MI19, November 1945, WO 165/41, TNA.

140. See Lampersberger’s file in KV 2/2690, TNA.

1. Special SR1, 6 April 1941, WO 208/3455, TNA.

2. Römer, Comrades: The Wehrmacht from Within.

3. GRS (General Report Statistical) 6(a), 19 June 1943, WO 208/5522, TNA.

4. Neitzel and Welzer, Soldaten. See also Welzer, Neitzel and Gudehus, ‘Der Führer war wieder viel zu human’; Neitzel, Tapping Hitler’s Generals.

5. This is because the generals in Trent Park were not subject to direct interrogation or other direct methods. See Chapter 1.

6. The combined number of Subject Interrogation Reports and Interrogation Reports, both produced by CSDIC’s Army’s Section, is 2,200.

7. The amount of information produced about individuals from these different types of material also led to a ‘Directory of Public Personalities in German Life’ being prepared by CSDIC, spanning twenty-four volumes with biographical and often contact information for Germans in various industries.

8. ‘CSDIC(UK): Survey’, 22 January 1941, WO 208/3455, TNA.

9. ‘CSDIC(UK) Half-Yearly Survey, 1st January, 1941–30th June, 1941’ from Thomas Kendrick to GSOII and MI9(a), 21 July 1941, WO 208/3455, TNA.

10. Crockatt to DMI, 7 March 1941, WO 208/3455, TNA.

11. Felkin to Boyle [Director of Air Intelligence], 12 November 1940, AIR 2/5238, as cited in Bell, Britische Feindaufklärung im Zweiten Weltkrieg, p. 181.

12. Hinsley et al., British Intelligence, vol. 1, pp. 531–35.

13. Ibid.; also Hinsley, British Intelligence in the Second World War, pp. 47–48.

14. Minute 4, From Stawell (DDMI(O)) for DMI to VCIGS, 17 January 1941, WO 208/3514, TNA.

15. ‘CSDIC(UK) Half-Yearly Survey, 1st January, 1941–30th June, 1941’ from Thomas Kendrick to GSOII and MI9(a), 21 July 1941, WO 208/3455, TNA.

16. ‘The History of CSDIC’, Appendix K, WO 208/4970, TNA.

17. Interrogation Reports Military (IRM) 16, 20 May 1940, WO 208/4195, TNA.

18. SRM1, 27 May 1940, WO 208/4136, TNA.

19. War Diaries MI19, December 1943, WO 165/41, TNA.

20. Percentages given throughout this section are based on a survey of these reports carried out for this chapter.

21. ‘The History of CSDIC’, Appendix K, WO 208/4970, TNA.

22. Ibid.

23. C. Andrew, ‘Churchill and Intelligence’, Intelligence and National Security 3 (1988): 181–93. See also R. J. Aldrich and R. Cormac, ‘From Circumspection to Centrality: Prime Ministers and the Growth of Analysis, Co-ordination, Management in the UK Intelligence Community’, Journal of Intelligence History 20 (2021): 7–24.

24. ‘The History of CSDIC’, WO 208/4970, TNA.

25. Minute Sheet by Crockatt (MI9), 25 July 1941, WO 208/3455, TNA.

26. SRA565, 20 September 1940, WO 208/4119, TNA.

27. From Robert Haining (VCIGS) to Davidson (DMI), 16 February 1941, WO 208/3455, TNA.

28. CSDIC(UK), ‘Morale of the German Armed Forces: Report Covering Period October, 1939, to 31st December, 1940’ by Lt Col Thomas Kendrick, undated (possibly spring 1941), WO 208/3455, TNA.

29. Minute from FHN Davidson (DMI) to RH Haining (VCIGS), undated (though February 1941), WO 208/4970, TNA.

30. Minutes of the 1st meeting of the Consultative Committee, Department for Publicity in Enemy Countries (To be kept under lock and key), 21 November 1939, WO 208/3450, TNA.

31. Committee of Imperial Defence, Standing Sub-Committee to Prepare Plans for the Establishment of a Ministry of Information, ‘Information in Enemy Countries’ Memorandum by Sir Stephen Tallents, Director-General Designate, Ministry of Information, 7 November 1938, FO 898/1, TNA.

32. Report by Sir Campbell Stuart on Sources of Information and Intelligence, 18 February 1940, FO 1093/133; Report by C. H. Brooks on talks with prisoners of war (London Area) between September 16th and 19th, 1940, FO 898/320, TNA.

33. ‘The Department of Propaganda in Enemy Countries’, unsigned and undated (but possibly March 1940), FO 1093/133, TNA.

34. Emery Reves to Winston Churchill, 18 October 1940, FO 898/3, TNA.

35. Memorandum by Mr F. A. Voigt, undated (but written in May 1940), TNA.

36. From Duff Cooper (Minister of Information) to Sir Campbell Stuart, 26 July 1940, FO 1093/133, TNA.

37. Report on ‘Methods in Research into German Morale and Propaganda’ by M. G. Balfour, 12 August 1942, FO 898/35, TNA.

38. Norman Crockatt’s job title was Deputy Director of Military Intelligence (prisoners of war) (DDMI(P/W)).

39. Crockatt to Brigadier Brookes (PID), 2 January 1941, FO 898/321, TNA.

40. Brigadier Brookes to Lt Col Crockatt, 7 January 1941, FO 898/321, TNA.

41. ‘CSDIC(UK): Six-Monthly Survey’, 19 January 1942, WO 208/4970, TNA.

42. ‘CSDIC(UK): Half-Yearly Survey’, 21 July 1941, WO 208/3455, TNA.

43. See the relevant sections in the GRXs in WO 208/4180, TNA

44. Ibid.

45. GRX 9, December 1941, WO 208/4180, TNA.

46. GRX 16, reporting on surveys from July 1942, WO 208/4180, TNA.

47. GRX 19, reporting on surveys from October 1942, WO 208/4180, TNA.

48. GRX 21, reporting on surveys from December 1942, WO 208/4180, TNA.

49. GRX 17, reporting on surveys from August 1942, WO 208/4180, TNA.

50. GRX 19, reporting on surveys from October 1942, WO 208/4180, TNA.

51. GRX 20, reporting on surveys from November 1942, WO 208/4180, TNA.

52. GRX 2, 9 June 1941, WO 208/4180, TNA.

53. GRX 22, reporting on surveys from January 1943, WO 208/4180, TNA.

54. SRA2947, 10 August 1942, WO 208/4127, TNA.

55. GRX 16, reporting on surveys from July 1942, WO 208/4180, TNA.

56. GRX 21, reporting on surveys from December 1942, WO 208/4180, TNA.

57. GRX 3, 16 August 1941, WO 208/4180, TNA.

58. ‘CSDIC(UK): Half-Yearly Survey’, 21 July 1941, WO 208/3455, TNA.

59. SRM171, 7 February 1943, WO 208/4136, TNA.

60. SRM202, 20 June 1943, WO 208/4136, TNA.

61. On the ‘bond’ between Hitler and the German public see: Michael H. Kater, ‘Hitler in a Social Context’, Central European History 14 (September 1981): 243–72.

62. GRS6(a), 19 June 1943, WO 208/5522, TNA.

63. O. Bartov, Hitler’s Army: Soldiers, Nazis, and War in the Third Reich (New York; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), pp. 106–22; I. Kershaw, ‘Hitler and the Uniqueness of Nazism’, Journal of Contemporary History 39 (2004): 239–54; I. Kershaw, ‘“Working towards the Führer.” Reflections on the Nature of the Hitler Dictatorship’, Contemporary European History 2 (1993): 103–18; M. R. Lepsius, ‘The Model of Charismatic Leadership and its Applicability to the Rule of Adolf Hitler’, Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions 7 (2006): 175–90.

64. GRX 17, reporting on surveys from August 1942, WO 208/4180, TNA.

65. GRS6(a), 19 June 1943, WO 208/5522, TNA.

66. GRX 5, 7 September 1941, WO 208/4180, TNA.

67. SRA1131, January 1941, WO 208/4122, TNA.

68. GRX 6, 9 October 1941, WO 208/4180, TNA.

69. ‘CSDIC(UK): Six-Monthly Survey’, 19 January 1942, WO 208/4970, TNA.

70. GRX 22, undated (but reporting on surveys from January 1943), WO 208/4180, TNA.

71. GRS6, 8 May 1943, WO 208/5522, TNA.

72. GRX 16, undated (but reporting on surveys from July 1942), WO 208/4180, TNA.

73. GRX 23, 6 March 1943, WO 208/4180, TNA.

74. GRX 6, 9 October 1941, WO 208/4180, TNA.

75. GRX 7, 11 November 1941, WO 208/4180, TNA.

76. Ibid.

77. GRS6(a), 19 June 1943, WO 208/5522, TNA.

78. GRX 7, 11 November 1941, WO 208/4180, TNA.

79. GRS11, 27 May 1944, WO 208/5522, TNA.

80. GRS6(a), 19 June 1943, WO 208/5522, TNA.

81. War Diary, AMD 11, 12 February 1943, WO 165/129, TNA.

82. See ‘Story report Psychological Warfare (draft by Hollander; 10 October 1944)’, WO 219/4751, TNA.

83. Bowen (PID) to Minister of Information, 12 September 1945, CAB 103/236, TNA.

84. ‘A Psychological Basis for Anti-Nazi Propaganda’, 16 December 1939, FO 898/3, TNA.

85. Gurfein and Janowitz, ‘Trends in Wehrmacht Morale’; Shils and Janowitz, ‘Cohesion and Disintegration’; Levy, ‘Anti-Nazis: Criteria of Differentiation’; D. Pick, ‘“In Pursuit of the Nazi Mind?” The Deployment of Psychoanalysis in the Allied Struggle Against Germany’, Psychoanalysis and History 11 (2009): 137–57; D. Pick, The Pursuit of the Nazi Mind: Hitler, Hess, and the Analysts (Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2014); M. Ffytche and D. Pick (eds.), Psychoanalysis in the Age of Totalitarianism (London: Routledge, 2016); K. R. Graham, ‘Germany on the Couch: Psychology and the Development of British Subversive Propaganda to Nazi Germany’, Journal of Contemporary History 54 (2019): 487–507.

86. ‘The History of CSDIC’, WO 208/4970, TNA.

87. GRS6, 8 May 1943, WO 208/5522, TNA.

88. GRS6, 8 May 1943, WO 208/5522, TNA. Many in Germany in 1933 saw Hitler’s coming to power in positive terms, especially for its potential to strengthen social unity: G. Bolitho, ‘Hitlerism: Two Neglected Aspects’, The English Review, 1908–1937 (March 1934), 323–29.

89. GRS6, 8 May 1943, WO 208/5522, TNA.

90. GRS7, 23 June 1943, WO 208/5522, TNA.

91. GRS8, 17 September 1943, WO 208/5522, TNA.

92. GRS9, 14 December 1943, WO 208/5522, TNA.

93. GRS10, 24 February 1944, WO 208/5522, TNA.

94. Ibid.

95. In 1933 it was thought that the middle classes, viewed as supportive of National Socialism, could shift ‘into mere passive supporters of the reigning order of society’, if and when the regime did not improve their personal position; according to CSDIC’s surveys, this predicted shift from support to apathy seems to have happened. H. D. Lasswell, ‘The Psychology of Hitlerism’, The Political Quarterly 4 (1933): 373–84.

96. GRS10, 24 February 1944, WO 208/5522, TNA.

97. Ibid.

98. GRS11, 27 May 1944, WO 208/5522, TNA.

99. Ibid.

100. GRX 16, undated (but reporting on surveys from July 1942), WO 208/4180, TNA.

101. SRA713, 9 October 1940, WO 208/4120, TNA.

102. H. L. Ansbacher, ‘Attitudes of German Prisoners of War: A Study of the Dynamics of National-Socialistic Followership’, Psychological Monographs: General and Applied 62 (1948): i–42.

103. Ibid., pp. 38–39.

104. Artemis Photiadou, ‘The ABCs of Nazism: The Political Screening and Classification of German Prisoners of War in Britain in the Aftermath of the Second World War’, The English Historical Review 141 (2026): 207–233; J. Reinisch, The Perils of Peace: The Public Health Crisis in Occupied Germany (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), pp. 155–59 and 168–73.

105. SRA753, 17 October 1940, WO 208/4120, TNA.

106. SRA2389, 15 December 1941, WO 208/4126, TNA.

107. SRA1908, 26 June 1941, WO 208/2124, TNA.

108. See: C. R. Browning, ‘The Nazi Decision to Commit Mass Murder: Three Interpretations: The Euphoria of Victory and the Final Solution: Summer–Fall 1941’, German Studies Review 17 (1994): 473–81; R. Breitman, ‘Plans for the Final Solution in Early 1941’, German Studies Review 17 (1994): 483–93; I. Kershaw, ‘Improvised Genocide? The emergence of the “Final Solution” in the “Warthegau”’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 2 (1992): 51–78.

109. See SRA818, 25 October 1940, WO 208/4120, TNA.

110. SRA1259, 8 February 1941, WO 208/4123 TNA.

111. SRA2329, 28 November 1941, WO 208/4125, TNA.

112. SRN1075, 14 September 1942, WO 208/4144, TNA.

113. SRA1017, 12 December 1940, WO 208/4122, TNA.

114. GRX 18, September 1942, WO 208/4180, TNA.

115. SRA2670, 20 June 1942, WO 208/4126, TNA.

116. SRA3138, 13 September 1942, WO 208/4128, TNA.

117. SRA2423, 6 January 1942, WO 208/4126, TNA.

118. SRA1227, 31 January 1941, WO 208/4123, TNA.

119. SRA1292, 15 February 1941, WO 208/4123, TNA.

120. SRA3182, 18 September 1942, WO 208/4128, TNA.

121. SRA1198, 15 January 1941, WO 208/4123, TNA.

122. SRA2678, 19 June 1942, WO 208/4126, TNA.

123. SRA895, 4 November 1940, 208/4121, TNA.

124. SRA1401, 5 March 1941, WO 208/4123, TNA.

125. SRA927, 11 November 1940, WO 208/4121, TNA.

126. SRA2734, 7 July 1942, WO 208/4127, TNA.

127. SRA2957, 9 August 1942, WO 208/4127, TNA.

128. SRA2618, 11 June 1942, WO 208/4126, TNA.

129. SRA2672, 19 June 1942, WO 208/4126, TNA.

130. See for example: B. Wasserstein, Britain and the Jews of Europe, 1939–1945 (London; New York: Oxford University Press, 1979); T. Kushner, The Holocaust and the Liberal Imagination: A Social and Cultural History (Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1994); L. London, Whitehall and the Jews, 1933–1948: British Immigration Policy, Jewish Refugees, and the Holocaust (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000); Fleming, Auschwitz, the Allies and Censorship; Gilbert, Auschwitz and the Allies; Hamerow, Why We Watched; D. Stone, The Holocaust: An Unfinished History (London: Pelican Books, 2023).

131. SIR931, 9 September 1944, WO 208/3600, TNA.

132. See WO 208/4174, TNA.

133. Paper 78, 11 April 1945, WO 208/4174, TNA.

134. War Diaries MI19, March 1944, WO 165/41, TNA.

135. Extract from JIC (45) 53rd Meeting (O), 8 August 1945, ‘Release of captured German documents to the press and others’, HW 14/133, TNA.

136. Annex, JIC Paper 1085/45 dated 2.8.45, CAB 176/7, TNA.

137. Minutes, MI9/19 to AG3 (VW), 16 November 1945, WO 311/632, TNA.

138. See SIRs 1154, 1214, 1285 in WO 208/3605, WO 208/3606, and WO 208/3607 respectively, TNA.

139. Major Terry (WCIU) to Halse (JAG’s Office), 21 November 1945, WO 208/4660, TNA.

140. ‘The Intelligence Machine: Report to the Joint Intelligence Sub-Committee’, 10 January 1945, CAB 163/6, TNA.

1. Affidavit of Civilian Heinz Kuckelsberg-Alexander, prisoner of war at London District Cage, 9 December 1945, WO 208/4298, TNA.

2. In secondary literature this WCIU is almost always mistaken for the War Crimes Investigation Unit, which was the British team doing the same work as WCIU in Germany. The two were nevertheless separate and in fact there was an explicit direction not to abbreviate the organisation in Germany, to avoid mistaking it with the UK’s WCIU: ‘War Crimes Investigation Unit BAOR – Instructions for hand-over’, March 1946, WO 309/372, TNA. The reason for this confusion may be the fact that secondary literature relies heavily on Alexander Scotland’s account of WCIU. In the unpublished version of his memoirs (WO 208/5381, TNA), he refers to WCIU as the War Crimes Interrogation Unit. In the published version, however, this is incorrectly changed (unknown if deliberately) to War Crimes Investigation Unit.

3. The number is approximate because there were two ways to bring charges, either through the United Nations War Crimes Commission or independently. The number used here is based on data kept by the Commission, and so does not include those tried independently. The USSR was not a member of the Commission hence its own charges are not included in this data.

4. See J. Silverman and R. Sherwood, Safe Haven: The United Kingdom’s Investigations into Nazi Collaborators and the Failure of Justice (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2023); K. von Lingen and M. Salter, ‘Contrasting Strategies within the War Crimes Trials of Kesselring and Wolff’, Liverpool Law Review 26 (2005): 225–66; J. Jackson and R. Winch, ‘The Complexity of Investigating War Crimes’, Journal of Global Faultlines 8 (2021): 209–18.

5. ‘The Emsland Case’, WCIU/LDC/1200, 1 October 1946, WO 208/4297, TNA.

6. ‘Comprehensive report on “Operation Emsland”’ by Major T. X. H. Pantcheff (WCIU), 12 April 1947, WO 208/4299, TNA.

7. On the topic of influencing public opinion in Germany, see R. Bessel, Germany 1945: From War to Peace (London, New York, Sydney, Toronto: Simon & Schuster, 2009); K. H. Jarausch, After Hitler: Recivilizing Germans, 1945–1995 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006); C. Knowles, Winning the Peace: The British in Occupied Germany, 1945–1948 (London: Bloomsbury, 2017); C. Erlichman and C. Knowles, ‘Legitimising Occupation: The Quest for Popular Consent During the British Occupation of Germany, 1945–1949’, Journal of Modern European History 22 (2024): 435–57.

8. United States, United Kingdom and Soviet Union, ‘Statement on Atrocities’, in Moscow Conference, October 1943: Joint Four-Nation Declaration; Declaration on Italy; Declaration on Austria; Statement on Atrocities (Moscow: 1 November 1943).

9. H. Shawcross, Life Sentence: The Memoirs of Lord Shawcross (London: Constable, 1995), pp. 86–87.

10. Ibid., p. 87.

11. Taylor, The Anatomy of the Nuremberg Trials, p. 276.

12. P. Dale Jones, ‘Nazi Atrocities Against Allied Airmen: Stalag Luft III and the End of British War Crimes Trials’, Historical Journal 41 (1998): 543–56.

13. ‘Note of a meeting held in Room 443, Hobart House, on Monday 11th June, 1945, to discuss plans for co–operation between service departments and the Treasury Solicitor in bringing major war criminals to trial’, FO 939/437, TNA; Authorised by Royal Warrant 0160/2498, Regulations for the Trial of War Criminals, 16 June 1945.

14. ‘Comprehensive report on “Operation Emsland”’ by Pantcheff (WCIU), 12 April 1947, WO 208/4299, TNA.

15. A. G. Somerhough (Group Captain, Officer i/c War Crimes group (NEW)) to DAG, HQ BAOR, 1 March 1947, WO 309/476, TNA.

16. Donald Somervell to Henry MacGeagh, 3 May 1945, WO 311/3, TNA.

17. For those handed over, see WO 309/2204, TNA.

18. Lt Col Thomas C. Van Cleeve (AUS Commanding) to All interrogating officers of CSDIC (West), 27 August 1944, WO 204/11455, TNA.

19. ‘Interrogation of Enemy Prisoners of War: Recommendation adopted by the [War Crimes] Commission on 17th January 1945’, C.65(2), 18 January 1945, WO 311/869, TNA.

20. ‘Note on the operations of War Crimes Interrogation Unit, WCIU’, by A. P. Scotland, 30 November 1948, WO 208/4294, TNA.

21. Smithers to AG3 (VW); PW1; JAG, 25 June 1945, WO 311/7, TNA; Minutes, MI9/19 to AG3 (VW), 16 November 1945, WO 311/632, TNA.

22. Colonel R. C. Halse for Mil Dep JAG to DJAG (Allied Land Forces, Oslo), 25 July 1945, WO 311/3; Frederick C. Bovenschen (Joint Permanent Under-Secretary of State for War) to Attorney General, 10 January 1945, WO 311/3, TNA.

23. ‘Note on the operations of War Crimes Interrogation Unit, WCIU’ by A. P. Scotland, 30 November 1948, WO 208/4294, TNA.

24. See PWIS(H)’s departmental history in WO 208/4970, TNA.

25. Draft proposal submitted by MI19 to MI1 re the PWIS(H) establishment, undated (but possibly September 1945), WO 311/869, TNA.

26. Alexander Scotland, ‘The London Cage’ (unpublished manuscript), 28, WO 208/5381, TNA.

27. Scotland, The London Cage, p. 17.

28. For the quotes used here, see ‘Personalities in PWIS(H) at 30 November 1945’, Alexander Scotland, WO 311/61, TNA. For other staff and more detail on the biographies of those mentioned here, see Fry, The London Cage.

29. ‘Note on the operations of War Crimes Interrogation Unit, WCIU’ by A. P. Scotland, 30 November 1948, WO 208/4294, TNA.

30. ‘Comprehensive report on “Operation Emsland”’ by Pantcheff (WCIU), 12 April 1947, WO 208/4299, TNA.

31. See Cheah and Vormbaum, ‘British War Crimes Trials’.

32. In correspondence from September 1945, when WCIU was still operating as PWIS(H), it was mentioned that warrant officers were required to take affidavits: Draft proposal submitted by MI19 to MI1 re the PWIS(H) establishment, undated (possibly September 1945), WO 311/869, TNA. When looking at the individual reports – 621 identified for research for this chapter – there are affidavits taken by WCIU personnel, for example those of Rudolf Heinrich, Max Rugge and Walter Simon about the Emsland case from November 1945 in WO 208/4298, TNA. In many other cases, affidavits were witnessed by a JAG officer present at WCIU. See again various examples in WO 208/4298, TNA.

33. ‘London District Cage – Status and Functions’, October 1941, WO 208/5615, TNA.

34. Scotland to JAG, 12 December 1947, WO 208/4663, TNA.

35. Notes for WE Meeting, by WCIU, 13 March 1947, WO 311/640, TNA.

36. Ibid.

37. Report on LD 1437 Soldat Oskar Reinhoffer, LDC, 1 July 1946, FO 939/458, TNA; Terry to Sunley, 1 July 1946, FO 939/458, TNA.

38. Extract from report of Major J. R. Painchaud, undated, WO 208/4646, TNA.

39. Affidavit of Kenneth Edward Mountcastle, 27 July 1945, WO 208/4646, TNA; Affidavit of Oswald Constantine John Phipps, the Marquis of Normanby, 1 September 1945, WO 208/4646, TNA; Extracts from a letter by Major D. L. Charters in 1943, undated, as reported by Frank Rowland Viner, 9 October 1945, WO 208/4646, TNA.

40. Military Deputy’s Office to Scotland (PWIS(H)), 1 August 1945, WO 208/4646, TNA; Affidavit of Kenneth Edward Mountcastle, 27 July 1945, WO 208/4646, TNA.

41. Military Deputy’s Office to PW1, 2 August 1945, WO 208/4646, TNA.

42. PWIS(H)/LDC/864–U/LH, 15 November 1945, WO 208/4654, TNA.

43. Colonel Halse to PW1, 23 March 1946, WO 208/4654, TNA.

44. For the case against Rosenau see DJAG case no. 424/JAG, www.legal-tools.org/doc/5a1d05/pdf/ (accessed 5 August 2025).

45. Pantcheff to Scotland, 29 December 1945, WO 208/4299, TNA.

46. Ibid.

47. ‘Comprehensive report on “Operation Emsland”’ by Pantcheff, 12 April 1947, WO 208/4299, TNA.

48. Donald Bloxham and Jonathan Waterlow, ‘War Crimes Trials’, in Richard Bosworth and Joseph Maiolo (eds.), The Cambridge History of the Second World War, Volume II: Politics and Ideology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015), p. 193.

49. Colonel ‘A’, British War Crimes Executive (European Section) to Court House, Nuremberg, 3 April 1946, WO 208/4677, TNA.

50. Director of Personnel Services to HQ BAOR, 12 September 1946, WO 311/15, TNA.

51. ‘WCIU/LDC/1334–U/ML’, 13 September 1946, WO 208/4648, TNA.

52. Scotland to AG3 (VW), 5 September 1946, WO 311/640, TNA.

53. Dr R. Zivkovic, Representative of Yugoslavia on the UNWCC to JAG, 15 March 1947, WO 311/61, TNA.

54. For examples see: Military Deputy’s Office (JAG) to Officer i/c WCIU, 22 March 1946, WO 208/4662, TNA; Loose minute by Major Leicester-Warren (JAG’s Office) to PW1, 10 January 1946, WO 208/4650, TNA; M. de Baer (Office of the Representative of Belgium on the United Nations War Crimes commission) to Colonel Halse (DJAG), 12 April 1946, WO 311/869, TNA.

55. Notes for WE Meeting, by WCIU, 13 March 1947, WO 311/640, TNA.

56. Ibid.

57. Notes for War Establishments Committee Meeting, 20 June 1946, WO 311/640, TNA.

58. An example can be found in WO 208/4645, TNA.

59. ‘Note on the operations of War Crimes Interrogation Unit, WCIU’ by A. P. Scotland, 30 November 1948, WO 208/4294, TNA.

60. WCIU to JAG, 17 March 1947, WO 311/640, TNA; ‘Note on the operations of War Crimes Interrogation Unit, WCIU’ by A. P. Scotland, 30 November 1948, WO 208/4294, TNA.

61. Scotland (WCIU) to Lt Col Arthur Harris (HQ BAOR), 14 November 1946, WO 311/640, TNA

62. Scotland to Col K. E. Savill (DSO, AG3 (B) (VW)), 15 November 1946, WO 311/640, TNA.

63. Scotland to Lt Col Arthur Harris (HQ BAOR), 14 November 1946, WO 311/640, TNA; Director of Personnel Services to A(PS4), HQ BAOR, 22 November 1946, WO 311/640, TNA.

64. Pantcheff to Scotland, 29 December 1945, WO 208/4299, TNA.

65. Sir Alfred Brown (Chief of Legal Division (Rear) Control Commission for Germany) to Lt Col Max Perceval (MI1), 2 January 1946, FO 937/110, TNA.

66. Note on Duties of Prisoners of War Interrogation Section (Home), possibly by Scotland, 27 November 1945, WO 311/61, TNA.

67. AG3 (VW) to BAS (Washington), 26 October 1945, FO 939/437, TNA. A recent study has compared the British courts in Europe with those in Asia and highlighted a number of similarities and differences, the main difference being that in Asia the system was decentralised while the distance from the UK meant they did not benefit from the close collaboration with the Department of Judge Advocate General: Cheah and Vormbaum, ‘British War Crimes Trials’.

68. Chief of Staff to HQ 8 Corps District, 2 March 1946, WO 309/1, TNA.

69. Chief of Staff to HQ Corps 1,8,30, 31 October 1945, WO 309/1, TNA.

70. Major General Chilton for Field Marshal Commander in Chief to AG3 (VW), 16 December 1945, WO 309/1, TNA; AG3 (VW) to HQ BAOR; HQ ALF Norway; GHQ CMF; GHQ ME, 3 November 1945, FO 939/437, TNA.

71. Major General Chilton for Field Marshal Commander in Chief to AG3 (VW), 16 December 1945, WO 309/1, TNA.

72. ‘Comprehensive report on “Operation Emsland”’ by Pantcheff (WCIU), 12 April 1947, WO 208/4299, TNA.

73. See also W. Maley, ‘The Atmospherics of the Nuremberg Trial’, in D. A. Blumenthal and T. McCormack (eds.), The Legacy of Nuremberg: Civilising Influence or Institutionalised Vengeance? (Leiden: Brill, 2008), pp. 1–11.

74. ‘Comprehensive report on “Operation Emsland”’ by Pantcheff, 12 April 1947, WO 208/4299, TNA; see also ‘Note to WCIU Translators’ by AFAI Terry, 24 April 1946, WO 208/4657, TNA.

75. Bloxham, Genocide on Trial, pp. 77–78.

76. Outside Britain, trials also had a lot to do with punishing local collaborators. See, for example, United Nations War Crimes Commission, The History of the United Nations War Crime Commission and the Development of the Laws of War (London: His Majesty’s Stationary Office, 1948), p. 518.

77. D. Welch, ‘The Political Re-Education of Germany after World War II: A Need for a Reappraisal?’, German History 4 (1987): 23–35.

78. Bloxham, ‘British War Crimes Trial Policy’; Bloxham and Waterlow, ‘War Crimes Trials’, pp. 181–208.

79. Taylor, The Anatomy of the Nuremberg Trials, p. 270.

80. Schmidt, ‘The Scars of Ravensbrück’.

81. A. Becness (Air Ministry) to A. C. Somerhough (Group Captain, JAG’s Branch (War Crimes Section) BAOR), 26 March 1946, WO 309/2204, TNA.

82. D. Bloxham, ‘Defeat, Due Process, and Denial: War Crimes Trials and Nationalist Revisionism in Comparative Perspective’, in J. Macleod (ed.), Defeat and Memory (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), pp. 117–36.

83. A. G. Somerhough (Group Captain Legal Staff) to DJAG, 6 October 1945, WO 309/2204, TNA.

84. Somerhough to DJAG, 9 January 1946, WO 309/2204, TNA.

85. AG3 (VW) to HQ BAOR; HQ ALF Norway; GHQ CMF; GHQ ME, 3 November 1945, FO 939/437, TNA.

86. Field Marshal Commander in Chief (HQ BAOR) to US of S, WO, 2 November 1945, WO 309/1, TNA.

87. Major General M. S. Chilton for Field Marshal, Commander in Chief (HQ Baor) to AG3 (War Office), 16 December 1945, WO 309/7, TNA.

88. ‘State of Cases as at 30th April, 1946 on information available in London’, WO 311/59, TNA.

89. ‘War Crimes Trials: summary to 31 October 1946’, WO 311/59, TNA.

90. Shawcross, Life Sentence, p. 133.

91. Shapcott (JAG) to DDPS(C), 21 February 1946, WO 311/3, TNA.

92. Shapcott (JAG) to Major-General N. C. D. Brownjohn (HQ BAOR), 3 June 1946, WO 311/841, TNA.

93. Scotland to AG3 (VW), 17 October 1946, WO 311/640, TNA.

1. See particularly Bloxham, Genocide on Trial, chapter 2.

2. Voluntary Statement by PW LD 1150, Oberfeldwebel Herbert Kempf, 4 March 1946, FO 939/458, TNA.

3. On the topic of witness testimony in this conflict, see Annette Wieviorka, The Era of the Witness (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2006); Eric Stover, The Witnesses: War Crimes and the Promise of Justice in The Hague (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005).

4. WCIU/LDC/1485-MC/HFF, 20 January 1947, WO 208/4642, TNA.

5. WCIU/LDC/1508, 12 February 1947, WO 311/869, TNA.

6. See report 1458 dated 13 December 1946, WO 311/869, TNA.

7. Report on the interrogation of PW B236821 Uffz. Schaffstein, Karl Heinz, alias Graf Guenter von Alten, LDC, 14 January 1948, FO 939/458, TNA.

8. PWIS(H)/LDC/831(b)-Te/Fr, 5 November 1945, WO 208/3661, TNA.

9. PWIS(H)/LDC/828(b)-U/F, 2 November 1945, WO 208/3661, TNA; PWIS(H)/LDC/830(b)-U/R, 31 October 1945, WO 208/3661, TNA.

10. WCIU/U/LH/985, 31 January 1946, WO 208/4662, TNA.

11. Lt Col F. H. Wallis (Commandant, Botesdale Camp) to the Under Secretary of State, War Office, 25 April 1945, WO 208/4637, TNA.

12. PWIS(H)/LDC/733, 2 June 1945, WO 208/4637, TNA.

13. Report by Gefr Franz Schmidt (translated by S/Sjt Lacey), 23 April 1945, WO 208/4637, TNA.

14. PWIS(H)LDC/793, 5 September 1945, WO 208/3660, TNA.

15. PWIS(H)LDC/800, 16 September 1945, WO 208/3660, TNA.

16. PWIS(H)LDC/804, 1 October 1945, WO 208/3660, TNA.

17. See WO 235/616, TNA.

18. PWIS(H)LDC/816, 24 October 1945, WO 208/3661, TNA; PWIS(H)LDC/807, 8 October 1945, WO 208/3660, TNA.

19. Captain G. C. Sunley to Major Terry (LDC), 19 June 1946, FO 939/458, TNA.

20. Terry to Fraser, 15 August 1946, FO 939/458, TNA.

21. Report on interrogation of PW LD 1429 Gefr JUST, Karl Heinz, 25 June 1946, FO 939/458, TNA; AFAI Terry to Capt Sunley, 26 June 1946, FO 939/458, TNA.

22. WCIU/LDC/1617(a), 19 May 1947, WO 208/4684, TNA.

23. WCIU/LDC/1607(a), 12 May 1947, WO 208/4684, TNA.

24. WCIU/LDC/1754(a), 10 December 1947, WO 208/4663, TNA.

25. WCIU/LDC/972(a)-AR/LH: ‘Voluntary statement by PW LD 1120 Generalleutnant Wilhelm Harster’, 6 February 1946, WO 208/4663, TNA.

26. WCIU/LDC/982, 28 January 1946, WO 208/4661, TNA.

27. Terry to Halse (JAG), 21 November 1945, WO 208/4660, TNA.

28. ‘Interrogation of the SS Standartenfuehrer (Col.) of the SS and Oberst der Schutzpolizei (Colonel of the Police, DAUME, Max)’, interrogation carried out by Mr S. J. Nansen in No. 18 POW Camp, 6 September 1945, WO 208/4660, TNA.

29. See WO 208/4660, TNA.

30. Terry to S/Ldr CH March (ADI(k)), 14 November 1945, WO 208/4650, TNA.

31. Based on profiles available in WO 208/3504, TNA.

32. PWIS(H)/LDC/910, Appendix, 7 December 1945, WO 208/4650, TNA.

33. Major Leicester-Warren (JAG’s Office) to AG3 (VW), 4 March 1946, WO 208/4650, TNA.

34. Loose minute from Major Leicester-Warren (JAG’s Office) to PW1, 25 November 1945, WO 208/4650, TNA.

35. WCIU/LDC/990-AGS/CM: ‘Report on interrogation of PW 484266 Feldw Gent Goettsch-Gyx (Real name: Guenter Hans Helmuth Goettsch)’, 4 February 1946, WO 208/4650, TNA.

36. See reports in WO 208/4650, TNA.

37. S. Karstedt, ‘Life after Punishment for Nazi War Criminals: Reputation, Careers and Normative Climate in Post-War Germany’, in S. Farrall, M. Hough and S. Maruna (eds.), Escape Routes: Contemporary Perspectives on Life after Punishment (Abingdon: Routledge, 2011), p. 254.

38. United Nations War Crimes Commission, Law Reports of Trials of War Criminals, vol. IV (His Majesty’s Stationary Office, 1948), 95.

39. Terry (WCIU) to Demitsas (Greek representative to the UN War Crimes Committee), 17 January 1947, WO 208/4650, TNA.

40. PWIS(H)/LDC/875(a), 18 November 1945, WO 208/4645, TNA.

41. PWIS(H)/LDC/876, 18 November 1945, WO 208/4645, TNA.

42. PWIS(H)/LDC/811(b)-U, 14 October 1945, WO 208/4645, TNA.

43. PWIS(H)/LDC/903–HH/MM: ‘Consolidated report on interrogation of all Rhodes PsW’, 3 December 1945, WO 208/4645, TNA.

44. Loose minute from Halse to PW1, 18 December 1946, WO 208/4645, TNA.

45. Major Terry to Col Barratt (JAG’s Office), 25 January 1946, WO 311/869, TNA.

46. Statement of POW Reinert J., witnessed by S/Sjt F. H. Grey, 27 May 1945, WO 208/4638, TNA.

47. Northern Command to Under Secretary of State, 9 June 1945, WO 311/869, TNA.

48. PWIS(H)/LDC/767: ‘Translation of statement by PW D417863 Gefr. Eduard Hillert’, 9 August 1945, WO 208/4638, TNA; PWIS(H)/LDC/767: ‘Report on atrocity in Graudenz, committed in Nov. 1939’, 9 August 1945, WO 208/4638, TNA.

49. PWIS(H)/LDC/760: ‘Report on atrocity committed in Graudenz; November 1939’, London District Cage, 13 July 1945, WO 208/4638, TNA.

50. PWIS(H)/LDC/767-Te-wb: ‘Report on atrocity in Graudenz, committed in Nov. 1939’, London District Cage, 9 August 1945, WO 208/4638, TNA.

51. See the prisoner’s request for a cancellation of his ‘freezing’ order in WCIU/1530, 28 February 1947, WO 208/4682, TNA.

52. See report 758 dated 9 July 1945, WO 208/4639, TNA.

53. ‘Comprehensive report on “Operation Emsland”’ by Major Pantcheff, 12 April 1947, WO 208/4299, TNA. More about the nature of the Emsland camps may be found in N. Wachsmann, Hitler’s Prisons: Legal Terror in Nazi Germany (New Haven, CN and London: Yale University Press, 2004).

54. Affidavit of Civilian Viktor Ulich at London District Cage, December 1945, WO 208/4298, TNA.

55. Pantcheff to Scotland, 29 December 1945, WO 208/4299, TNA.

56. Major T. X. H. Pantcheff (WCIU) to Major Allen (AG3 (B) (VW)), 15 October 1946, WO 311/640, TNA.

57. Pantcheff to Scotland, 18 January 1946, WO 208/4299, TNA.

58. All relevant reports can be found in WO 208/4298, TNA.

59. See report from December 1945 in WO 208/4298, TNA.

60. See report dated 21 November 1945, WO 208/4298, TNA.

61. See also Bloxham, Genocide on Trial, p. 34.

62. See report dated 28 November 1945, WO 208/4298, TNA.

63. PWIS(H)/LDC/843, Ostubaf (SS) Max Wünsche, 7 November 1945, WO 208/3662, TNA.

64. For a summary of the crime and its evidence, see ‘The murder of 80–90 British prisoners of war by members of the German armed forces at Wormhoudt, France on 28th May 1940’, War Crimes Interrogation Unit, London, June 1947, WO 309/1814, TNA.

65. ‘Appendix B: The Evidence’ in ‘The murder of a considerable number of British prisoners-of-war by members of the German armed forces at Wormhoudt, France on 28th May 1940’, War Crimes Interrogation Unit, London, 1947, WO 309/1813, TNA.

66. ‘Massacre of British Prisoners of War in France in 1940’, note by Scotland, 31 October 1946, WO 311/640, TNA.

67. Military Deputy’s Office (JAG) to Scotland, 20 December 1945, WO 208/4659, TNA.

68. ‘The Emsland Case’, WCIU/LDC/1200, 1 October 1946, WO 208/4297, TNA.

69. Pantcheff to Scotland, 18 January 1946, WO 208/4299, TNA.

70. PWIS(H)/KP/702: ‘Report on Atrocities Committed in Alderney (1942–1945)’ by Pantcheff, 23 June 1945, WO 208/4295, TNA.

71. Ibid.

72. House of Commons Debate, 13 May 1992, vol. 207 cc105–6W.

73. T. X. H. Pantcheff, Alderney: Fortress Island (Chichester: Phillimore & Co., 1981).

74. Scotland to Lt Col Arthur Harris (HQ BAOR), 14 November 1946, WO 311/640, TNA.

75. See also Overy, ‘Instructive for the Future’, and Overy, Interrogations.

76. Scotland’s published book, The London Cage, mentions little about the Cage. It is the unpublished manuscript that contains much relevant material: Alexander Scotland, ‘The London Cage’, WO 208/5381, TNA.

77. Undated minute, ‘Note on the “London Cage’”, TS 50/3, TNA.

78. Alexander Scotland, ‘The London Cage’, p. 68, WO 208/5381, TNA.

79. Ibid.

80. Andrew, The Defence of the Realm, pp. 251–52.

81. See Petition by Otto Witt, 4 June 1943, KV 2/477, TNA.

82. Milmo to Director General, 3 July 1943, KV 2/477, TNA.

83. Diary entry for 26 June 1943 in West (ed.), The Guy Liddell Diaries, Volume II.

84. Scotland to Shapcott, 29 April 1946, WO 311/61, TNA.

85. Their concern was that an officer was not present in the interrogation, and they believed that written rules should have provided for such presence. The proceedings of this Court of Inquiry from September 1947 are in WO 208/4685, TNA.

86. Overy, ‘Instructive for the Future’, pp. 96–97.

87. Scotland, The London Cage, pp. 155–57.

88. Knöchlein’s statements and related material are in WO 208/4685, TNA.

89. Minute by Attorney General to Secretary of State for War, 23 December 1948, WO 208/4685, TNA; House of Commons Debate, 8 February 1949, vol. 461, cc45–6W.

90. ‘Fair Play for Prisoners’, The Manchester Guardian, 11 February 1949.

91. Hans-Werner Wandhr, ‘PRISONERS’, The Manchester Guardian, 3 March 1949.

92. Scotland to Brig Shapcott (JAG), 29 April 1946, WO 311/61, TNA.

93. Ibid.

94. Brigadier H. Shapcott (Military Deputy, JAG) to DPW, 3 May 1946, WO 311/640, TNA.

95. Loose minute by DAAG to Military Deputy (JAG), 5 September 1946, WO 311/640, TNA.

96. See also D. Lomas, ‘The Drugs Don’t Work: Intelligence, Torture and the London Cage, 1940–8’, Intelligence and National Security 33 (2018): 918–29.

97. ‘Report on the work and organisation of PWIS on the transfer of this Unit from Military Intelligence to AG Investigation duty and AG control’, undated, WO 208/4294, TNA. ‘Personalities in PWIS(H) at 30 November 1945’, Alexander Scotland, WO 311/61, TNA.

98. See WO 208/3456, TNA.

99. Scotland to Lt Col RF Luck (A(PS4) HQ BAOR), 22 November 1946, WO 311/640, TNA.

100. Ibid.

101. Sullivan, Thresholds of Peace, p. 50.

102. Foreign Office (German Section) to Lt Col Scotland, 16 December 1946, FO 939/458, TNA.

103. Scotland to Lt Col RF Luck (A(PS4) HQ BAOR), 22 November 1946, WO 311/640, TNA.

104. Scotland, The London Cage, pp. 53–54.

105. Sullivan, Thresholds of Peace, p. 50.

106. ‘Note on the operations of War Crimes Interrogation Unit, WCIU’, A. P. Scotland, 30 November 1948, WO 208/4294, TNA. For discussions about installing microphones in the wartime cages see Crockatt (MI9) to Brigadier Mockler-Ferryman (BGS ‘I’, GHQ, Home Forces), 23 December 1940, WO 208/3456, TNA; Mockler-Ferryman to Crockatt, 29 December 1940, WO 208/3456, TNA.

1. See P. Biddiscombe, ‘Operation Selection Board: The Growth and Suppression of the Neo-Nazi “Deutsche Revolution” 1945–47’, Intelligence and National Security 11 (1996): 59–77; P. Biddiscombe, Werwolf! The History of the National Socialist Guerrilla Movement, 1944–1946 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1998); P. Maddrell, ‘Battlefield Germany’, Intelligence and National Security 13 (1998): 190–212.

2. War Diaries MI19, November 1944, WO 165/41, TNA.

3. In the interim, a small detachment was operating as CSDIC(Diest) in Belgium, interrogating prisoners of war, the wartime CSDIC in Italy also continued operations until early 1946 and there was also an interrogation detachment in Austria.

4. See, for example, Bessel, Germany 1945.

5. See Reinisch, Perils of Peace.

6. See K. R. Allen, Interrogation Nation: Refugees and Spies in Cold War Germany (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2017); A. H. Beattie, Allied Internment Camps in Occupied Germany: Extrajudicial Detention in the Name of Denazification, 1945–1950 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2020).

7. ‘Future Policy Regarding Interrogation Centres’, Crockatt (DDMI P/W), 27 August 1945, WO 208/3451, TNA.

8. See Stephens and Hoare, Camp 020, p. 95. This is a reproduction of parts of MI5’s departmental history of the war, written by Robin Stephens while he was commandant of CSDIC(WEA). See also P. Meehan, A Strange Enemy People: Germans Under the British, 1945–1950 (London; Chester Springs, PA: Peter Owen, 2001), pp. 78–87; S. Tobia, ‘Invisible Violences, Interrogation and Representation in Post-War Germany’, in A. Knapp and H. Footitt (eds.), Liberal Democracies at War: Conflict and Representation (London: Bloomsbury, 2013), pp. 115–35; I. Cobain, Cruel Britannia: A Secret History of Torture (London: Portobello Books, 2013), pp. 38–75.

9. For the Intelligence Division’s history see L. Daly-Groves, The British and American Intelligence Divisions in Occupied Germany, 1945–1955: A Secret System of Rule (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2024).

10. White to Petrie, 9 April 1945, KV 4/327, TNA; Weideman (BGS‘I’) to MI19, 9 April 1945, KV 4/327, TNA.

11. Major G. M. Hall for Stephens to CIB c/o GSI (b), HQ BAOR, 10 November 1945, FO 1030/282, TNA.

12. T. E. Harris to Assistant Inspector General, 7 June 1947, FO 1030/281, TNA.

13. ‘Interrogation Camp, Bad Nenndorf: Medical Report’ by R. W. Ryan, 12 April 1947, FO 1030/273, TNA.

14. ‘Report on CSDIC(WEA) by T. Hayward, Assistant Inspector General (Public Safety Branch)’, 14 June 1947, FO 1030/272, TNA.

15. Brief for the Secretary of State by Marsden-Smedley, 23 March 1948, FO 371/70829, TNA.

16. Hayward to Director, Penal Branch (Legal Division, CCG), 7 June 1947, FO 1060/1091, TNA.

17. Addendum, ‘Patients transferred to Rotenburg from CSDIC(WEA)’ by Dr Günther, 21 February 1947, FO 1060/735, TNA.

18. ‘Part I: Summary of main conclusions of the Court of Inquiry’, FO 1005/1744, TNA.

19. Dr Günther to Governor, No. 3 CIC Fallingbostel, 25 February 1947, FO 1060/1091, TNA.

20. ‘Part I: Summary of main conclusions of the Court of Inquiry’, FO 1005/1744, TNA.

21. Director of Prosecutions to Deputy Chief, Legal Division, ZECO, 15 January 1947, FO 1060/734, TNA.

22. Minute from M. L. Priss to Bushe-Fox, 17 November 1950, FO 936/1190, TNA.

23. ‘Report on CSDIC transfers to Rotenburg hospital’ by Major Morgan-Jones (Governor, No. 3 Civilian Internment Camp, Fallingbostel), 29 March 1947, FO 1060/735, TNA.

24. ‘Patients transferred to Rotenburg from CSDIC(WEA)’ by Dr Günther (Chief Doctor, Rotenburg CI Hospital), 21 February 1947, FO 1060/735, TNA.

25. Graf Robert Buttlar Brandenfels ger Herrmann, 29 March 1947, FO 1060/735, TNA.

26. The cases can be found in FO 1060/735 and FO 1030/282, TNA.

27. Hermann Habenicht [senior] to John Platts-Mills MP, 20 May 1948, WO 208/3786, TNA.

28. Director of Penal Branch to Acting Deputy Chief (Legal Division), 31 March 1947, FO 1060/735, TNA.

29. ‘Report on Cases Observed in No. 7 CIC’ by J. H. Jordan (Public Health Offices) to DCOS (Exec), 24 March 1947, FO 1060/735, TNA.

30. Deputy Chief of Staff (Exec) to Chief and Deputy Chief, Intelligence Division, 15 April 1947, FO 1060/1091, TNA.

31. ‘M.I.5 Methods told to Court’, Daily Express, 11 March 1948, PREM 8/794, TNA.

32. For the argument that torture is more likely to be used against those considered illegitimate than legitimate combatants, see an analysis of US case-studies in C. J. Einolf, ‘US Torture of Prisoners of War in Historical Perspective: The Role of Delegitimization’, in S. A. Anderson and M. C. Nussbaum (eds.), Confronting Torture: Essays on the Ethics, Legality, History, and Psychology of Torture Today (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2018), pp. 120–45.

33. See Tobia, ‘Invisible Violences’.

34. ‘Top Secret, Memorandum on CSDIC(WEA)’, unsigned and undated, PREM 8/794, TNA.

35. ‘Report on the Directorate of Prisoners of War’, September 1920, HO 45/11025/410118, TNA.

36. See: D. Anderson, Histories of the Hanged: The Dirty War in Kenya and the End of Empire (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 2005); D. Anderson, ‘British Abuse and Torture in Kenya’s Counter-Insurgency, 1952–1960’, Small Wars & Insurgencies 23 (2012): 700–19; C. Standley, ‘The British Army, Violence, Interrogation and Shortcomings in Intelligence Gathering during the Cyprus Emergency 1955–59’, in C. Andrew and S. Tobia (eds.), Interrogation in War and Conflict: A Comparative and Interdisciplinary Analysis (London: Routledge, 2014), pp. 153–68; H. Bennett, ‘“Detainees are always one’s Achilles heel”: The Struggle over the Scrutiny of Detention and Interrogation in Aden, 1963–1967’, War in History 23 (2016): 457–88; B. Drohan, Brutality in an Age of Human Rights: Activism and Counterinsurgency at the End of the British Empire (New York: Cornell University Press, 2017); C. Elkins, Britain’s Gulag: The Brutal End of Empire in Kenya (London: Jonathan Cape, 2005); D. French, The British Way in Counter-Insurgency, 1945–1967 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012).

37. H. Bennett, Uncivil War: The British Army and the Troubles, 1966–1975 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2023); S. Newbery, Interrogation, Intelligence and Security: Controversial British Techniques (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2015); S. Newbery, ‘Intelligence and Controversial British Interrogation Techniques: The Northern Ireland Case, 1971–2’, Irish Studies in International Affairs 20 (2009), 103–19.

1. Hinsley, ‘British Intelligence in the Second World War: An Overview’.